seed propagation some of the following points relate specifically to collecting seed from trees, but others apply to collecting seeds from the range of types of plants used in bioengineering. how to climb seed trees climbing must be done carefully, so as to avoid accidents. many people fall out of trees and you should make sure that this does not happen to your seed collectors. local methods can be safe if properly supervised. follow these guidelines for safety:      - only employ seed collectors if they like climbing;      - only use strong and healthy collectors;      - collectors should work in twos, then if one needs help, the other can go        and get it;      - only healthy trees with strong branches should be climbed;      - the climber should tie himself to the tree whenever possible while picking        fruits;      - proper fruit cutting tools with long handles should be used, so that there        is not need to cut off large branches. if seed must be collected from very large trees that are dangerous or difficult to climb by local methods, contact the GEU for advice. the GEU may be able to provide special equipment (spurs, safety belts and ropes) and trained seed collectors. it may be useful for someone in your area to receive such equipment and training. what fruits to harvest only collect ripe fruits. If fruits are collected too early, the seed may be immature and weak. If you delay collection too long, the seed may be eaten by birds, or attacked by insects or fungi. pick fleshy fruits just as they turn from green to their ripe colour. pick dry fruits that open just before they open. test the ripeness of seed by cutting the fruit open and looking at the inside of the seeds. they should be firm and white, and completely fill the seedcoat. the seedcoat should usually be dark and hard. do not collect fruits that are unhealthy or attacked by insects. for this reason avoid fruits that have fallen to the ground, though they are sometimes suitable. check them carefully. how to harvest the fruits harvest the fruits without damaging the tree, so that it can produce again in the following years. whenever possible, take only the fruits or the small twigs bearing them. try not to tear them off, but cut or break them cleanly. unless it is absolutely necessary, do not allow seed collectors to cut whole branches with a khukuri or sickle. suitable seed collection tools include the following:      - a hook for bending branches towards the collector. tie or nail a metal hook        to a wooden handle 2 m long. provide a 2 m length of rope so that the climber        can tie the hook and the branch to himself, so that he has both hands free        to pick the fruits and put them in the collecting bag. a strongly made hook        can also help in climbing the tree;      - if it is necessary to break off the ends of branches with the fruits attached,        a 'wedge knife' will work well. this can be made in Kathmandu. It should be         bolted or tied with wire to a light, long wooden or bamboo pole (up to 4 m).         the collector places the tool over the branch end and pulls it. the branch         may slice of easily, but it is woody, the knife may have to be twisted to         snap the branch;       - a collecting bag can be made from a strong hessian sack which has been         made shorter and has a draw string to close the mouth easily. when full, the         bag is closed and thrown to the ground. the best material for long handles is one-inch aluminium tube with thick walls, which can be purchased in Kathmandu. otherwise, use well dried wooden or bamboo poles. if it is difficult to gather the fruits by hand in the tree, they can be allowed to fall to the ground and be gathered by an assistant. clearing the ground of vegetation may help. the assistant should wear a strong hat as protection from falling fruit and twigs. it may be safer to wait until the climber has finished his work. transport and storage of fruits store and transport fruits in cloth or hessian sacks. do not put them in polythene bags, as they will get warm and mouldy very quickly, spoiling the seeds inside. always store the sacks of fruit in the shade, where it is cool and dry. keep them off the ground by placing them on planks of wood, or hang them from hooks. how much seed to collect calculate quantities as explained below. the Geo-Environmental Unit can advise on the approximate numbers of seeds per kilogram if you cannot find out from the available literature. if the nursery Nike is using good techniques, it may be possible to reduce the amount of seed. many species do not produce seed regularly. when they do have a good year, and if they are of a type that can be dried and stored, you should collect enough for two or more years' needs and store it in the nursery, or at the Division office store. if the seed collectors manage to collect more seed than is needed, do not waste it by sowing too much in the nursery, or storing it carelessly. seed supplies are always difficult and there may be other nurseries that could use it. calculation of tree seed requirements because of natural uncertainties, you need to obtain and sow many more seeds than the actual number of seedlings required. it is normal practice to grow 35 % extra seedlings and discard the poorer plants when they leave the nursery. it is also normal to allow four times the amount of seed for the total number of seedlings to be grown. therefore, for every 10 seedlings to be used on site, 50 seeds should be obtained and sown. the table below shows as an example the quantity of seeds required to grow 5,000 each of uttis and khote salla trees. when to collect seeds you need to know the dates for seed collection in order to get good results. details are given in the tables below, as far as they are known, for the main bioengineering species. every month, you should check which species are due to ripen, so that you do not forget to arrange for their collection. before the collecting season of a species starts, the nursery Naike should keep a regular check on how the fruits are ripening. in some years, fruits will ripen earlier than usual, and in other years they may ripen later. as a general rule, fruits tend to ripen later in the west than in the east, and also later at higher altitudes. seed collection times for grasses local name botanical name seed collection Amliso Thysanolaena maxima Mar-Apr Babiyo Eulaliopsis binata Jan-Feb Banso ghans Eragrostis tenella Dec-Jan Blue panic grass Panicum antidotate Use cuttings Buffalo grass Cenchrus ciliaria Use cuttings Clover Trifolium species Use cuttings Dangre khar Cymbopogon pendulus Dec-Jan Desmodium Desmodium distortum Use cuttings Desmodium greenleaf Desmodium intortum Use cuttings Dhonde Neyraudia reynaudiana Dec-Jan Dhubo Cynodon dactylon Use cuttings Dhungre unknown Dec-Jan Dhus unknown Dec-Jan Jaughans unknown May-Jun Kagati ghans Cymbopogon citratus Nov-Dec Kans Saccharum spontaneum Nov-Dec Khar Cymbopogon microtheca Dec-Jan Khus Vetiver zizanioides Sep-Nov Kikiyu, thulo dhubo Pennisetum clandestinum Use cuttings Kudzu Pueraria lobata Use cuttings Molasses Melinis minutiflora Use cuttings Musekharuki Pogonatherum paniceum (?) Use cuttings Napier Pennisetum purpureum Use cuttings Narkat Arundo clonax Nov-Jan NB21 P.Purpureumx typhoides Use cuttings Padang bans Himalayacalamus hookerianus Use cuttings Phurke Arunduella nepalensis Dec-Jan Rato kans Franthus rufipilus Dec-Jan Salimo khar Chrysopogon gryllus Dec-Jan Setaria Setaria anceps Jul-Aug Sito Neyraudia arundinacea Dec-Jan Stylo Stylosanthes guianensis Use cuttings Thulo kharuki Capipedium assimile (?) Dec-Jan Tite nigalo bans Drepanostachyrum intermedium Use cuttings seed collection times for shrubs/small trees local name botanical name seed collection Aak Calatropha giganteum Feb-Mar Ainselu Rubus ellipticus Nov-Dec Alainchi Elettaria cardamomum ? Amala Phyllanthus emblica Sep-Jan Amba/ambak Psidium guajava Aug-Oct Aparajita Clitoria ternatea ? Areri Acacia pennata Nov-Dec Argali Unknown Use cuttings Arile kanda Caesalpinia decapetala ? Armalito, seabuckthorn Hippophae salicifolia Nov-Dec Assuro Adhatoda vasica Use cuttings Bainsh Salix tetrasperma Use cuttings Bains Unknown; not salix Use cuttings Bagamkali / baramase phul Bougainvillea spectabilis Use cuttings Ban chutro Berberis aristata ? Ban silam Elsholtzia blanda ? Bayer Zizyphus mauritiana Dec-Mar Bhimsenpati Buddleja asiatica Use cuttings Bhui katahar Ananas comosus Use cuttings Bhujetro Butea minor Nov-Jan Bilaune Maesa chisia ? Bokshi ghans Mimosa rubicaulis Use cuttings Chiya Camellia sisensis (and other species) Use cuttings Chutro Berberis assiatica Mar-Apr Coffee Coffea arabica Aug Dhanyero Woodfordia fruticosa Mar-Apr Dhusun Colebrookea appositifolia Mar Gahate Unknown ? Ghangaru Pyracantha crenulata Use cuttings Ghurmiso Leucosceptrum canum Use cuttings Hasna / hasua Cestrum nocturnum ? Imili Rumex natatus Mar-Apr Kanda phul Lantana camara Use cuttings Kera Musa paradisiaca Use root suckers Kettuke Agave americana Use cuttings Keraukose Indigofera atroturpurea Nov-Jan Khirro Sepium insegne Use cuttings Kimbu Morus alba Use cuttings Kunyelo Trema orientalis Use cuttings Lalupate Poinsettia pulcherrima Use cuttings Mesquite Prosopis juliflora May-Jun Nambi phul Unknown Use cuttings Nil kanda Duranta repens Use cuttings Pate siuli Opuntia ficus indica ? Rahar Cajanus cajan ? Rato chulsi Osbeckia stellata ? Saruwa / bihaya Ipomoea fistulosa Use cuttings Sajiwan Jatropha curcas Use cuttings Simali Vitex negundo Use cuttings Sisal Agava sisalana Use cuttings Siuli / sihundi Euphorbia royleana ? Tara phul / kochu Helianthus tuberosus Use cuttings Thakal Phoenix humilis Feb Tilka Wendlandia species Feb-Mar seed collection times for large trees seed collection times for large trees (continued) local name botanical name seed collection Acacia Acacia auriculiformis Mar-Apr Amp / aap Mangifera indica May-Jul Ashare phul Lagerstroemia parviflora Jan-Feb Babu / kikar Acacia nilotica Dec-Feb (?) Badarhar Artocarpus lakoocha Jun-Jul Bakeno Melia azedarach Nov-Mar Bange kath Populus ciliata Use cuttings Banghi Anogeissus latifolius Dec-Mar Birendra phul Jacaranda mimosifolia Feb-Mar Champ Michelia champaca Aug-Nov Chilaune Schima wallichii Jan-Apr Chiuri Aesandra butyracea Jun-Aug Chuletro Brassaiopsis hainla May-Jun Dabdabe Garuga pinnata Jun-Sep Dar / githi Boehmeria rugulosa Oct-Jan Deshi katus Castanea sativa Oct-Nov Dhale katus Castanopsis indica Oct-Nov Dhupi salla Cryptomeria japonica Oct-Nov Dhdhilo Ficus neriifolia Jan-Aug Ghobre salla Pinus wallichiana Oct-Nov Gliricidia Gliricidia sepium ? Gogan Saurauia nepaulensis Mar-Apr Golainchi / goila Palumeria acuminata ? Gulmohar Delonix regia Mar-May Ipil ipil Leucaena species Nov-Jan Jamun Syzygium cumini Jun-Jul Kadam anthocephalus chinensis Oct-Jan Kagati Citrus asurantifolia Sep-Nov Kaju Anacardium occidentale ? Kalki phul / bottlebrush Callistemon citrinus Oct-Feb Kalo siris Albizia lebbeck Nov-Jan Kaniyo Grevillea robusta Jun-Sep Kapur Cinnamomun camphora Sep-Nov Kavro Ficus locor Mar-May Khanyu (Khosro) Ficus semicordata Jul-Oct Khari Celtis australis Oct-Dec Khasru Quercus semecarpifolia Jun-Feb Khayer Acacia catechu Jan-Feb Koiralo Bauhinia variegata Mar-May Kutmero Litsea monopetala Jun-Aug Lahare pipal Populusxeuram erica Use cuttings Lankuri Fraxinus floribunda Sep-Jan Lapsi Choerospondias axillaris Oct-Jan Makadamia Macadamia tetraphylla ? Mashal Eucalyptus camaldulensis Jul-Sep Mayal / mel Pyrus pashia Nov-Jan Musure katus Castanopsis tribuloides Oct-Nov Nebharo Ficus auriculata Mar-May Nim Azadirachta indica Jun-Jul Okhar Jaglans regia Sep-Dec Painyu Prunus cerasoides Oct-Nov Patle katus Castanopsis hystrix Oct-Nov Phalant Quercus lamellosa Oct-Nov Phaledo Erythrina species Nov-Mar seed processing and storage seed processing following collection most seeds need to be removed from their fruits before sowing or storage. separate them carefully to avoid damaging the seeds. although they may look inert and tough, they can easily be damaged by heat, moisture, physical breakage, fungi, insects, etc. try to extract the seeds as soon as possible after collection, unless recommended otherwise. spread out grass seeds to dry in sheltered, sunny places, on a clean concrete or hard earth floor. separate them from stems and other unwanted parts in the ways normally used for grains. since the seeds of bioengineering grasses are mostly very fine, take great care when winnowing. Once the seeds are thoroughly dry, place them in a hessian jute bag for storage. instructions for processing tree and shrub seeds are given in the manual Forest Seed and Nursery Practice in Nepal. storing seed if you are sowing the seeds immediately after processing (within a few days), put them in a cloth bag and keep them cool. never use a sealed container such as a polythene bag, glass jar or tin. the seed will usually be too moist and will quickly get warm and mouldy. if you are keeping the seeds for more than a week (often several months or even a year may be required), store them properly to avoid loss of viability. most species have seeds that store best if they are properly dried, and then kept dry and cool. these are called 'orthodox' seed. first, dry them properly. expose the seed to the sun on a sieve, nanglo or gundri that is raised off the ground on wooden strips or stones, so that there is plenty of air circulation above and below the seeds. if possible, spread them out thinly (one seed thick). if this is not possible because of lack of space, turn the seeds every hour during drying so that those on the bottom also dry out. usually 2-3 days in the sun will be sufficient. if the seeds were extracted from the fruits using the water method, they will be very damp and so let them dry for a day in the shade before exposing them to the sun. if moist seed is exposed to the sun's heat too quickly it may be damaged. at night, cover the trays with cloth or put them under a roof. be careful to cover them well if there is any chance of rain. if there is not much sun, leave the seeds on the drying trays under cover until there is a dry and sunny period. when the seeds have dried sufficiently, leave them in the sun until the afternoon, and then put them immediately into a container that can be properly sealed, thus keeping them dry. do not leave packing until the morning, as the seeds will absorb moisture overnight. the simplest container is a thick polythene bag, or two thinner ones, one inside the other. squeeze out the excess air, and then tie the neck tightly with string or wire so that damp air cannot get in. it is often a good idea to put the bag in a tin box to protect it from being punctured and from rodents who may try to eat the seed. plastic or glass jars with a screw lid can be used for small quantities of seed provided that the lid forms a tight seal. do not put un-bagged seeds in tins with lids that press shut, as the seal may not be sufficiently tight. label and number the containers of seed keep the containers in a cool and dry room. the best place is a well-ventilated ground floor room on the north side of a two-storey building. keep the containers off the ground, preferably on shelves half way up the wall. do not put them in the eaves of a roof, as this will become warm during the day or directly on ground floor, as this may be damp. when you remove seed from a container, make sure it is sealed properly immediately afterwards. this is especially important if the container is opened on a wet day. if the container is left open the seed will quickly absorb moisture, and will need to be dried again. some species have seeds that must be kept moist if they are to remain viable. they are called 'recalcitrant'. If they are dried they will quickly die. these seeds are often found in species that have fleshy fruits which do not dry out on the tree, and which are dispersed just before or during the rains. the following species used for bioengineering fall into this category. Badahar Champ Chiuri Dhale katus Chuletro Khasru Kutmero Musure katus Okhar Patle katus Phalant Artocarpus lakoocha Michelia champaca Aesandra butyracea Castanopsis indica Brassaiopsis hainla Quercus semecarpifolia Litsea monopetala Castanopsis tribuloides Juglans regia Castanopsis hystrix Quercus lamellosa always sow this seed as soon as possible. If it has to be stored for more than a week, use the following method. extract the seed from the flesh, do not dry it, but mix it with twice its volume of damp sand. put this mixture in a tin with a lid, whose sides and bottom have a least 20 small holes (2 mm diameter), made with a nail. make sure several of the holes are in the bottom, to allow for drainage-after putting in the sand/seed mixture, fill it to the top with damp sand. dig a hole 1 m deep in a sheltered and well drained place. check that the water table is not reached. cover the bottom with a layer of damp sand, and put the seed containers on it. then cover with more damp sand, and fill the rest of the hole with the excavated soil. Mark the spot with a stick. if it is on a slope, dig a drainage ditch above the hole so that water will not drain into it. when you require the seed, dig it out. remove the seed from the sand carefully, as some of it may have started to germinate. equipment you can obtain storage tins and thick polythene bags from Kathmandu. the tin trunks available in most bazaars are ideal for keeping plastic bags of seed in. if thick polythene bags are not available locally, use two thinner ones, one inside the other. plastic jars from bazaars are suitable, provided the lid is a tight fit. you can check this by filling the jar with water, screwing on the lid, turning it upside down and squeezing. water should not come out. vegetative propagation and preparation of cutting the table below summarises the main groups of plants and the parts used for cuttings. types of Plant cutting type example source of material age of parent part grasses Stem (culm) cutting Rhizome cuttings Slip cuttings Stolon cuttings Napier Amliso Khar Dhubo Upright stem Clump Clump Horizontal stem 6 to 18 months 3 to 18 months 3 to 18 months 6 to 18 months bamboos Rhizome cuttings Stem (culm) cuttings all types Choya Clump Upright stem 1 to 2 years to 3 years trees and shrubs (woody plants) Stem cutting Stump cuttings Simali Sisau single plant stem single plants stem 1 to 2 years 1½ to 3 years most large clumping grasses and the bamboos are suitable for bioengineering works. almost all of them can be propagated by slip or rhizome cuttings, but you should only try to use culm cuttings of grasses or bamboos if they show heavy branching from the nodes. sources of alternative material sometimes you have to select new species of shrubs and trees for propagation by cuttings. you may need a large number of hardwood cuttings for brush layering a slope. if there are not enough source plants of the commonly used species, you may have to find a suitable local alternative. there are no set rules for selecting new plants. but there are some signs, which suggest that a species may be suitable for propagation from cuttings. first look for species that are already being propagated vegetatively by farmers or foresters. also look for the following:      - signs of coppicing or pollarding;      - signs of aerial roots or natural layering;      - heavy branching; and      - many new shoots coming from where the plant has been cut or damaged. the only way you can be sure is to take some cuttings, plant them in the nursery and wait. criteria for selecting individual plants as material sources there are several, but the criteria are:      - plants must have reached maturity, and therefore be productive and capable        of continuing to yield material;      - plants must be healthy and therefore be productive and able to give healthy        material;      - they must be of reasonable size so they can yield a significant amount of        material. Size also indicates age and maturity; and      - plants must be in good condition and not damaged by insects or in other        ways. vegetative propagation perennial grasses often form the main part of a bioengineering scheme. propagating these grasses vegetatively is not difficult technically and various vegetative methods of propagation are highly successful. not all grasses can be propagated by every method. in fact, many are best propagated by only one particular method. the optimum method can only be established by experiment. for those species used and recommended by GEU the optimum methods are given in the Interim Rate Analysis Norms. culm or stem cuttings normally a piece of stem with at least two or three nodes is used, but the most vigorous species, such as napier, can be propagated from single node cuttings. select material that is between one and two years old. cut the stem horizontally about 3 cm above the higher node and at about 45°3 cm below the lower node. the different cuts mean that you can easily see which way up the cutting should be planted. insert the cutting into loosened, moist soil, so that the level of the soil is about half-way up. cuttings can be inserted at an angle of about 45° but vertical insertion is equally acceptable. many plants survive equally well if cuttings are planted horizontally. often the upper node gives shoots and the lower node gives roots, but a large, strong shoot may also emerge from the lower node. after planting, lay a sheet of hessian over the tops of the cuttings to give shade. keep it in place until the new shoots are about 5 cm long, and then remove it in stages, starting with a few hours a day. stolon cuttings if the grass produces a stolon, it is usually possible to make cuttings from the individual nodes. this is particularly easy with dubo and kikiyu. often roots grow naturally from the nodes on the stolon. this is called 'layering'. if this happens you only have to cut the stolon mid-way between the nodes and carefully transplant it with its roots and shoots intact. it is already a new plant. if roots have not yet appeared you can cut off a node and plant it not more than 10 mm below the surface. keep any leaves attached to it and plant the cutting with them above the ground. avoid damaging any shoots or buds that exist. the node will shoot and root very quickly. slip cuttings these are used where grasses do not have a rhizomatous root system. an example is khar. take a clump of the grass, cut the shoots cut off about 10 to 15 cm above the ground and then split the whole clump carefully into sections. each section should include several old shoots and, if possible, any new buds that are visible and as much root as possible. you need to balance getting the maximum number of transplants from one clump while making sure each is a viable plant. when you are planting the slips bury the root parts carefully into loose, moist soil, trying to keep them as straight as possible and about 2 cm below the surface. if they are more shallow they may dry out. the tops can be either at an angle or vertical. after planting lay a sheet of hessian over the tops of the cuttings to give shade. keep it there until the new shoots are about 5 cm long and then remove it in stages, starting with a few hours a day. rhizome cuttings this method is used for grasses such as amliso which have a rhizome system. take a clump of the grass and cut off the shoots above the first or second node above the ground. separate the clump carefully, causing as little damage as possible to the rhizomes and fine roots. keep at least 5 cm of the rhizome, or at least a few centimetres of the horizontal part, per cutting. each cutting should have some buds on the rhizome, but often these are difficult to see. the new growth will come from the buds on the rhizome. when you plant them, keep the level of the soil as it was originally, making sure the rhizome is well covered. the method of planting and covering is similar to that of slip cuttings. management in the nursery grasses can be multiplied rapidly in the nursery using the best method for each particular species. when they have grown up and completely filled the beds, lift them out, split them up and plant them again. one bed of large plants ready for splitting usually fills three beds once they are transplanted. this can be repeated three times a year in a fertile nursery below 500 metres altitude and correspondingly less frequently with increasing altitude. preparation of cuttings preparation and rooting of hardwood cuttings rooting hardwood cuttings is one of the easiest and cheapest ways of propagating plants vegetatively. make cuttings from wood of the previous season's growth or sometimes of the one before. never use older wood because this is very difficult to root. use material from branches in the lower part of the tree crown- but not from the main shoots or other outer parts of these branches. even better, take cuttings from stool shoots produced in the nursery for this purpose. prepare cuttings just before the buds open, usually from mid-January to mid-April (Magh to Chaitra), from healthy vigorous stems or branches. do not use weak stems. the cuttings should be about 15 - 20 cm long, 8 - 20 mm diameter, with at least two, and preferably three or four, nodes. make a horizontal cut 1 to 3 cm above the upper node and a sloping cut just below the lowest node with secateurs, a sharp khukuri or similar blade. abvoid crushing, splitting or otherwise damaging the ends. cuts off all leaves and side branches. prepare the cuttings the same day you collect the shoots and set them immediately into pots or beds which have been prepared in advance. cuttings that are allowed to dry out will not form roots. you can root cuttings in large polypots (not less than 4" ´ 7"), or in previously prepared nursery beds. the beds or potting mixture in the polypots must be free draining. use a sandy loam or a loamy sand, i.e. a soil containing at least 50% sand. in most nurseries this will mean that special beds must be prepared by adding sand to the soil. as a general rule make the beds at least 30 cm deep, using one part nursery soil and one part sand. cut the two bottom corners off polypots before you fill them, to ensure that water can drain out. in beds, set the cuttings 30 cm apart, in holes slightly larger than their diameter, placing them so that only one bud, i.e. about 3 cm of the cutting, remains above the soil level. firm the soil up so that there are no air pockets around the cutting. use the same method for polypots, but finish by rolling the pot between your hands to firm up the soil. water the beds or pots and shade them immediately after setting. keep them constantly moist, but not too wet, until well after root formation. if the soil becomes too wet remove the shade for a few hours, but not long enough to permit the soil to dry out completely. new shoots will develop a few weeks after setting, and will cause increased water loss through transpiration. maintain shade to minimise this loss until fully functioning roots have formed. sometimes success is suggested by the development of healthy vigorous shoots, but they dry up and die if there is no equally vigorous development of roots. remove the shade once the roots are well developed and begin root pruning. in nurseries at lower elevations, and with faster growing species, rooted cuttings reach plantable size by the beginning of the monsoon (five months after setting). in other cases it may