seed propagation some of the following points relate specifically to collecting seed from trees, but others apply to collecting seeds from the range of types of plants used in bioengineering. how to climb seed trees climbing must be done carefully, so as to avoid accidents. many people fall out of trees and you should make sure that this does not happen to your seed collectors. local methods can be safe if properly supervised. follow these guidelines for safety:      - only employ seed collectors if they like climbing;      - only use strong and healthy collectors;      - collectors should work in twos, then if one needs help, the other can go        and get it;      - only healthy trees with strong branches should be climbed;      - the climber should tie himself to the tree whenever possible while picking        fruits;      - proper fruit cutting tools with long handles should be used, so that there        is not need to cut off large branches. if seed must be collected from very large trees that are dangerous or difficult to climb by local methods, contact the GEU for advice. the GEU may be able to provide special equipment (spurs, safety belts and ropes) and trained seed collectors. it may be useful for someone in your area to receive such equipment and training. what fruits to harvest only collect ripe fruits. If fruits are collected too early, the seed may be immature and weak. If you delay collection too long, the seed may be eaten by birds, or attacked by insects or fungi. pick fleshy fruits just as they turn from green to their ripe colour. pick dry fruits that open just before they open. test the ripeness of seed by cutting the fruit open and looking at the inside of the seeds. they should be firm and white, and completely fill the seedcoat. the seedcoat should usually be dark and hard. do not collect fruits that are unhealthy or attacked by insects. for this reason avoid fruits that have fallen to the ground, though they are sometimes suitable. check them carefully. how to harvest the fruits harvest the fruits without damaging the tree, so that it can produce again in the following years. whenever possible, take only the fruits or the small twigs bearing them. try not to tear them off, but cut or break them cleanly. unless it is absolutely necessary, do not allow seed collectors to cut whole branches with a khukuri or sickle. suitable seed collection tools include the following:      - a hook for bending branches towards the collector. tie or nail a metal hook        to a wooden handle 2 m long. provide a 2 m length of rope so that the climber        can tie the hook and the branch to himself, so that he has both hands free        to pick the fruits and put them in the collecting bag. a strongly made hook        can also help in climbing the tree;      - if it is necessary to break off the ends of branches with the fruits attached,        a 'wedge knife' will work well. this can be made in Kathmandu. It should be         bolted or tied with wire to a light, long wooden or bamboo pole (up to 4 m).         the collector places the tool over the branch end and pulls it. the branch         may slice of easily, but it is woody, the knife may have to be twisted to         snap the branch;       - a collecting bag can be made from a strong hessian sack which has been         made shorter and has a draw string to close the mouth easily. when full, the         bag is closed and thrown to the ground. the best material for long handles is one-inch aluminium tube with thick walls, which can be purchased in Kathmandu. otherwise, use well dried wooden or bamboo poles. if it is difficult to gather the fruits by hand in the tree, they can be allowed to fall to the ground and be gathered by an assistant. clearing the ground of vegetation may help. the assistant should wear a strong hat as protection from falling fruit and twigs. it may be safer to wait until the climber has finished his work. transport and storage of fruits store and transport fruits in cloth or hessian sacks. do not put them in polythene bags, as they will get warm and mouldy very quickly, spoiling the seeds inside. always store the sacks of fruit in the shade, where it is cool and dry. keep them off the ground by placing them on planks of wood, or hang them from hooks. how much seed to collect calculate quantities as explained below. the Geo-Environmental Unit can advise on the approximate numbers of seeds per kilogram if you cannot find out from the available literature. if the nursery Nike is using good techniques, it may be possible to reduce the amount of seed. many species do not produce seed regularly. when they do have a good year, and if they are of a type that can be dried and stored, you should collect enough for two or more years' needs and store it in the nursery, or at the Division office store. if the seed collectors manage to collect more seed than is needed, do not waste it by sowing too much in the nursery, or storing it carelessly. seed supplies are always difficult and there may be other nurseries that could use it. calculation of tree seed requirements because of natural uncertainties, you need to obtain and sow many more seeds than the actual number of seedlings required. it is normal practice to grow 35 % extra seedlings and discard the poorer plants when they leave the nursery. it is also normal to allow four times the amount of seed for the total number of seedlings to be grown. therefore, for every 10 seedlings to be used on site, 50 seeds should be obtained and sown. the table below shows as an example the quantity of seeds required to grow 5,000 each of uttis and khote salla trees. when to collect seeds you need to know the dates for seed collection in order to get good results. details are given in the tables below, as far as they are known, for the main bioengineering species. every month, you should check which species are due to ripen, so that you do not forget to arrange for their collection. before the collecting season of a species starts, the nursery Naike should keep a regular check on how the fruits are ripening. in some years, fruits will ripen earlier than usual, and in other years they may ripen later. as a general rule, fruits tend to ripen later in the west than in the east, and also later at higher altitudes. seed collection times for grasses local name botanical name seed collection Amliso Thysanolaena maxima Mar-Apr Babiyo Eulaliopsis binata Jan-Feb Banso ghans Eragrostis tenella Dec-Jan Blue panic grass Panicum antidotate Use cuttings Buffalo grass Cenchrus ciliaria Use cuttings Clover Trifolium species Use cuttings Dangre khar Cymbopogon pendulus Dec-Jan Desmodium Desmodium distortum Use cuttings Desmodium greenleaf Desmodium intortum Use cuttings Dhonde Neyraudia reynaudiana Dec-Jan Dhubo Cynodon dactylon Use cuttings Dhungre unknown Dec-Jan Dhus unknown Dec-Jan Jaughans unknown May-Jun Kagati ghans Cymbopogon citratus Nov-Dec Kans Saccharum spontaneum Nov-Dec Khar Cymbopogon microtheca Dec-Jan Khus Vetiver zizanioides Sep-Nov Kikiyu, thulo dhubo Pennisetum clandestinum Use cuttings Kudzu Pueraria lobata Use cuttings Molasses Melinis minutiflora Use cuttings Musekharuki Pogonatherum paniceum (?) Use cuttings Napier Pennisetum purpureum Use cuttings Narkat Arundo clonax Nov-Jan NB21 P.Purpureumx typhoides Use cuttings Padang bans Himalayacalamus hookerianus Use cuttings Phurke Arunduella nepalensis Dec-Jan Rato kans Franthus rufipilus Dec-Jan Salimo khar Chrysopogon gryllus Dec-Jan Setaria Setaria anceps Jul-Aug Sito Neyraudia arundinacea Dec-Jan Stylo Stylosanthes guianensis Use cuttings Thulo kharuki Capipedium assimile (?) Dec-Jan Tite nigalo bans Drepanostachyrum intermedium Use cuttings seed collection times for shrubs/small trees local name botanical name seed collection Aak Calatropha giganteum Feb-Mar Ainselu Rubus ellipticus Nov-Dec Alainchi Elettaria cardamomum ? Amala Phyllanthus emblica Sep-Jan Amba/ambak Psidium guajava Aug-Oct Aparajita Clitoria ternatea ? Areri Acacia pennata Nov-Dec Argali Unknown Use cuttings Arile kanda Caesalpinia decapetala ? Armalito, seabuckthorn Hippophae salicifolia Nov-Dec Assuro Adhatoda vasica Use cuttings Bainsh Salix tetrasperma Use cuttings Bains Unknown; not salix Use cuttings Bagamkali / baramase phul Bougainvillea spectabilis Use cuttings Ban chutro Berberis aristata ? Ban silam Elsholtzia blanda ? Bayer Zizyphus mauritiana Dec-Mar Bhimsenpati Buddleja asiatica Use cuttings Bhui katahar Ananas comosus Use cuttings Bhujetro Butea minor Nov-Jan Bilaune Maesa chisia ? Bokshi ghans Mimosa rubicaulis Use cuttings Chiya Camellia sisensis (and other species) Use cuttings Chutro Berberis assiatica Mar-Apr Coffee Coffea arabica Aug Dhanyero Woodfordia fruticosa Mar-Apr Dhusun Colebrookea appositifolia Mar Gahate Unknown ? Ghangaru Pyracantha crenulata Use cuttings Ghurmiso Leucosceptrum canum Use cuttings Hasna / hasua Cestrum nocturnum ? Imili Rumex natatus Mar-Apr Kanda phul Lantana camara Use cuttings Kera Musa paradisiaca Use root suckers Kettuke Agave americana Use cuttings Keraukose Indigofera atroturpurea Nov-Jan Khirro Sepium insegne Use cuttings Kimbu Morus alba Use cuttings Kunyelo Trema orientalis Use cuttings Lalupate Poinsettia pulcherrima Use cuttings Mesquite Prosopis juliflora May-Jun Nambi phul Unknown Use cuttings Nil kanda Duranta repens Use cuttings Pate siuli Opuntia ficus indica ? Rahar Cajanus cajan ? Rato chulsi Osbeckia stellata ? Saruwa / bihaya Ipomoea fistulosa Use cuttings Sajiwan Jatropha curcas Use cuttings Simali Vitex negundo Use cuttings Sisal Agava sisalana Use cuttings Siuli / sihundi Euphorbia royleana ? Tara phul / kochu Helianthus tuberosus Use cuttings Thakal Phoenix humilis Feb Tilka Wendlandia species Feb-Mar seed collection times for large trees seed collection times for large trees (continued) local name botanical name seed collection Acacia Acacia auriculiformis Mar-Apr Amp / aap Mangifera indica May-Jul Ashare phul Lagerstroemia parviflora Jan-Feb Babu / kikar Acacia nilotica Dec-Feb (?) Badarhar Artocarpus lakoocha Jun-Jul Bakeno Melia azedarach Nov-Mar Bange kath Populus ciliata Use cuttings Banghi Anogeissus latifolius Dec-Mar Birendra phul Jacaranda mimosifolia Feb-Mar Champ Michelia champaca Aug-Nov Chilaune Schima wallichii Jan-Apr Chiuri Aesandra butyracea Jun-Aug Chuletro Brassaiopsis hainla May-Jun Dabdabe Garuga pinnata Jun-Sep Dar / githi Boehmeria rugulosa Oct-Jan Deshi katus Castanea sativa Oct-Nov Dhale katus Castanopsis indica Oct-Nov Dhupi salla Cryptomeria japonica Oct-Nov Dhdhilo Ficus neriifolia Jan-Aug Ghobre salla Pinus wallichiana Oct-Nov Gliricidia Gliricidia sepium ? Gogan Saurauia nepaulensis Mar-Apr Golainchi / goila Palumeria acuminata ? Gulmohar Delonix regia Mar-May Ipil ipil Leucaena species Nov-Jan Jamun Syzygium cumini Jun-Jul Kadam anthocephalus chinensis Oct-Jan Kagati Citrus asurantifolia Sep-Nov Kaju Anacardium occidentale ? Kalki phul / bottlebrush Callistemon citrinus Oct-Feb Kalo siris Albizia lebbeck Nov-Jan Kaniyo Grevillea robusta Jun-Sep Kapur Cinnamomun camphora Sep-Nov Kavro Ficus locor Mar-May Khanyu (Khosro) Ficus semicordata Jul-Oct Khari Celtis australis Oct-Dec Khasru Quercus semecarpifolia Jun-Feb Khayer Acacia catechu Jan-Feb Koiralo Bauhinia variegata Mar-May Kutmero Litsea monopetala Jun-Aug Lahare pipal Populusxeuram erica Use cuttings Lankuri Fraxinus floribunda Sep-Jan Lapsi Choerospondias axillaris Oct-Jan Makadamia Macadamia tetraphylla ? Mashal Eucalyptus camaldulensis Jul-Sep Mayal / mel Pyrus pashia Nov-Jan Musure katus Castanopsis tribuloides Oct-Nov Nebharo Ficus auriculata Mar-May Nim Azadirachta indica Jun-Jul Okhar Jaglans regia Sep-Dec Painyu Prunus cerasoides Oct-Nov Patle katus Castanopsis hystrix Oct-Nov Phalant Quercus lamellosa Oct-Nov Phaledo Erythrina species Nov-Mar seed processing and storage seed processing following collection most seeds need to be removed from their fruits before sowing or storage. separate them carefully to avoid damaging the seeds. although they may look inert and tough, they can easily be damaged by heat, moisture, physical breakage, fungi, insects, etc. try to extract the seeds as soon as possible after collection, unless recommended otherwise. spread out grass seeds to dry in sheltered, sunny places, on a clean concrete or hard earth floor. separate them from stems and other unwanted parts in the ways normally used for grains. since the seeds of bioengineering grasses are mostly very fine, take great care when winnowing. Once the seeds are thoroughly dry, place them in a hessian jute bag for storage. instructions for processing tree and shrub seeds are given in the manual Forest Seed and Nursery Practice in Nepal. storing seed if you are sowing the seeds immediately after processing (within a few days), put them in a cloth bag and keep them cool. never use a sealed container such as a polythene bag, glass jar or tin. the seed will usually be too moist and will quickly get warm and mouldy. if you are keeping the seeds for more than a week (often several months or even a year may be required), store them properly to avoid loss of viability. most species have seeds that store best if they are properly dried, and then kept dry and cool. these are called 'orthodox' seed. first, dry them properly. expose the seed to the sun on a sieve, nanglo or gundri that is raised off the ground on wooden strips or stones, so that there is plenty of air circulation above and below the seeds. if possible, spread them out thinly (one seed thick). if this is not possible because of lack of space, turn the seeds every hour during drying so that those on the bottom also dry out. usually 2-3 days in the sun will be sufficient. if the seeds were extracted from the fruits using the water method, they will be very damp and so let them dry for a day in the shade before exposing them to the sun. if moist seed is exposed to the sun's heat too quickly it may be damaged. at night, cover the trays with cloth or put them under a roof. be careful to cover them well if there is any chance of rain. if there is not much sun, leave the seeds on the drying trays under cover until there is a dry and sunny period. when the seeds have dried sufficiently, leave them in the sun until the afternoon, and then put them immediately into a container that can be properly sealed, thus keeping them dry. do not leave packing until the morning, as the seeds will absorb moisture overnight. the simplest container is a thick polythene bag, or two thinner ones, one inside the other. squeeze out the excess air, and then tie the neck tightly with string or wire so that damp air cannot get in. it is often a good idea to put the bag in a tin box to protect it from being punctured and from rodents who may try to eat the seed. plastic or glass jars with a screw lid can be used for small quantities of seed provided that the lid forms a tight seal. do not put un-bagged seeds in tins with lids that press shut, as the seal may not be sufficiently tight. label and number the containers of seed keep the containers in a cool and dry room. the best place is a well-ventilated ground floor room on the north side of a two-storey building. keep the containers off the ground, preferably on shelves half way up the wall. do not put them in the eaves of a roof, as this will become warm during the day or directly on ground floor, as this may be damp. when you remove seed from a container, make sure it is sealed properly immediately afterwards. this is especially important if the container is opened on a wet day. if the container is left open the seed will quickly absorb moisture, and will need to be dried again. some species have seeds that must be kept moist if they are to remain viable. they are called 'recalcitrant'. If they are dried they will quickly die. these seeds are often found in species that have fleshy fruits which do not dry out on the tree, and which are dispersed just before or during the rains. the following species used for bioengineering fall into this category. Badahar Champ Chiuri Dhale katus Chuletro Khasru Kutmero Musure katus Okhar Patle katus Phalant Artocarpus lakoocha Michelia champaca Aesandra butyracea Castanopsis indica Brassaiopsis hainla Quercus semecarpifolia Litsea monopetala Castanopsis tribuloides Juglans regia Castanopsis hystrix Quercus lamellosa always sow this seed as soon as possible. If it has to be stored for more than a week, use the following method. extract the seed from the flesh, do not dry it, but mix it with twice its volume of damp sand. put this mixture in a tin with a lid, whose sides and bottom have a least 20 small holes (2 mm diameter), made with a nail. make sure several of the holes are in the bottom, to allow for drainage-after putting in the sand/seed mixture, fill it to the top with damp sand. dig a hole 1 m deep in a sheltered and well drained place. check that the water table is not reached. cover the bottom with a layer of damp sand, and put the seed containers on it. then cover with more damp sand, and fill the rest of the hole with the excavated soil. Mark the spot with a stick. if it is on a slope, dig a drainage ditch above the hole so that water will not drain into it. when you require the seed, dig it out. remove the seed from the sand carefully, as some of it may have started to germinate. equipment you can obtain storage tins and thick polythene bags from Kathmandu. the tin trunks available in most bazaars are ideal for keeping plastic bags of seed in. if thick polythene bags are not available locally, use two thinner ones, one inside the other. plastic jars from bazaars are suitable, provided the lid is a tight fit. you can check this by filling the jar with water, screwing on the lid, turning it upside down and squeezing. water should not come out. vegetative propagation and preparation of cutting the table below summarises the main groups of plants and the parts used for cuttings. types of Plant cutting type example source of material age of parent part grasses Stem (culm) cutting Rhizome cuttings Slip cuttings Stolon cuttings Napier Amliso Khar Dhubo Upright stem Clump Clump Horizontal stem 6 to 18 months 3 to 18 months 3 to 18 months 6 to 18 months bamboos Rhizome cuttings Stem (culm) cuttings all types Choya Clump Upright stem 1 to 2 years to 3 years trees and shrubs (woody plants) Stem cutting Stump cuttings Simali Sisau single plant stem single plants stem 1 to 2 years 1½ to 3 years most large clumping grasses and the bamboos are suitable for bioengineering works. almost all of them can be propagated by slip or rhizome cuttings, but you should only try to use culm cuttings of grasses or bamboos if they show heavy branching from the nodes. sources of alternative material sometimes you have to select new species of shrubs and trees for propagation by cuttings. you may need a large number of hardwood cuttings for brush layering a slope. if there are not enough source plants of the commonly used species, you may have to find a suitable local alternative. there are no set rules for selecting new plants. but there are some signs, which suggest that a species may be suitable for propagation from cuttings. first look for species that are already being propagated vegetatively by farmers or foresters. also look for the following:      - signs of coppicing or pollarding;      - signs of aerial roots or natural layering;      - heavy branching; and      - many new shoots coming from where the plant has been cut or damaged. the only way you can be sure is to take some cuttings, plant them in the nursery and wait. criteria for selecting individual plants as material sources there are several, but the criteria are:      - plants must have reached maturity, and therefore be productive and capable        of continuing to yield material;      - plants must be healthy and therefore be productive and able to give healthy        material;      - they must be of reasonable size so they can yield a significant amount of        material. Size also indicates age and maturity; and      - plants must be in good condition and not damaged by insects or in other        ways. vegetative propagation perennial grasses often form the main part of a bioengineering scheme. propagating these grasses vegetatively is not difficult technically and various vegetative methods of propagation are highly successful. not all grasses can be propagated by every method. in fact, many are best propagated by only one particular method. the optimum method can only be established by experiment. for those species used and recommended by GEU the optimum methods are given in the Interim Rate Analysis Norms. culm or stem cuttings normally a piece of stem with at least two or three nodes is used, but the most vigorous species, such as napier, can be propagated from single node cuttings. select material that is between one and two years old. cut the stem horizontally about 3 cm above the higher node and at about 45°3 cm below the lower node. the different cuts mean that you can easily see which way up the cutting should be planted. insert the cutting into loosened, moist soil, so that the level of the soil is about half-way up. cuttings can be inserted at an angle of about 45° but vertical insertion is equally acceptable. many plants survive equally well if cuttings are planted horizontally. often the upper node gives shoots and the lower node gives roots, but a large, strong shoot may also emerge from the lower node. after planting, lay a sheet of hessian over the tops of the cuttings to give shade. keep it in place until the new shoots are about 5 cm long, and then remove it in stages, starting with a few hours a day. stolon cuttings if the grass produces a stolon, it is usually possible to make cuttings from the individual nodes. this is particularly easy with dubo and kikiyu. often roots grow naturally from the nodes on the stolon. this is called 'layering'. if this happens you only have to cut the stolon mid-way between the nodes and carefully transplant it with its roots and shoots intact. it is already a new plant. if roots have not yet appeared you can cut off a node and plant it not more than 10 mm below the surface. keep any leaves attached to it and plant the cutting with them above the ground. avoid damaging any shoots or buds that exist. the node will shoot and root very quickly. slip cuttings these are used where grasses do not have a rhizomatous root system. an example is khar. take a clump of the grass, cut the shoots cut off about 10 to 15 cm above the ground and then split the whole clump carefully into sections. each section should include several old shoots and, if possible, any new buds that are visible and as much root as possible. you need to balance getting the maximum number of transplants from one clump while making sure each is a viable plant. when you are planting the slips bury the root parts carefully into loose, moist soil, trying to keep them as straight as possible and about 2 cm below the surface. if they are more shallow they may dry out. the tops can be either at an angle or vertical. after planting lay a sheet of hessian over the tops of the cuttings to give shade. keep it there until the new shoots are about 5 cm long and then remove it in stages, starting with a few hours a day. rhizome cuttings this method is used for grasses such as amliso which have a rhizome system. take a clump of the grass and cut off the shoots above the first or second node above the ground. separate the clump carefully, causing as little damage as possible to the rhizomes and fine roots. keep at least 5 cm of the rhizome, or at least a few centimetres of the horizontal part, per cutting. each cutting should have some buds on the rhizome, but often these are difficult to see. the new growth will come from the buds on the rhizome. when you plant them, keep the level of the soil as it was originally, making sure the rhizome is well covered. the method of planting and covering is similar to that of slip cuttings. management in the nursery grasses can be multiplied rapidly in the nursery using the best method for each particular species. when they have grown up and completely filled the beds, lift them out, split them up and plant them again. one bed of large plants ready for splitting usually fills three beds once they are transplanted. this can be repeated three times a year in a fertile nursery below 500 metres altitude and correspondingly less frequently with increasing altitude. preparation of cuttings preparation and rooting of hardwood cuttings rooting hardwood cuttings is one of the easiest and cheapest ways of propagating plants vegetatively. make cuttings from wood of the previous season's growth or sometimes of the one before. never use older wood because this is very difficult to root. use material from branches in the lower part of the tree crown- but not from the main shoots or other outer parts of these branches. even better, take cuttings from stool shoots produced in the nursery for this purpose. prepare cuttings just before the buds open, usually from mid-January to mid-April (Magh to Chaitra), from healthy vigorous stems or branches. do not use weak stems. the cuttings should be about 15 - 20 cm long, 8 - 20 mm diameter, with at least two, and preferably three or four, nodes. make a horizontal cut 1 to 3 cm above the upper node and a sloping cut just below the lowest node with secateurs, a sharp khukuri or similar blade. abvoid crushing, splitting or otherwise damaging the ends. cuts off all leaves and side branches. prepare the cuttings the same day you collect the shoots and set them immediately into pots or beds which have been prepared in advance. cuttings that are allowed to dry out will not form roots. you can root cuttings in large polypots (not less than 4" ´ 7"), or in previously prepared nursery beds. the beds or potting mixture in the polypots must be free draining. use a sandy loam or a loamy sand, i.e. a soil containing at least 50% sand. in most nurseries this will mean that special beds must be prepared by adding sand to the soil. as a general rule make the beds at least 30 cm deep, using one part nursery soil and one part sand. cut the two bottom corners off polypots before you fill them, to ensure that water can drain out. in beds, set the cuttings 30 cm apart, in holes slightly larger than their diameter, placing them so that only one bud, i.e. about 3 cm of the cutting, remains above the soil level. firm the soil up so that there are no air pockets around the cutting. use the same method for polypots, but finish by rolling the pot between your hands to firm up the soil. water the beds or pots and shade them immediately after setting. keep them constantly moist, but not too wet, until well after root formation. if the soil becomes too wet remove the shade for a few hours, but not long enough to permit the soil to dry out completely. new shoots will develop a few weeks after setting, and will cause increased water loss through transpiration. maintain shade to minimise this loss until fully functioning roots have formed. sometimes success is suggested by the development of healthy vigorous shoots, but they dry up and die if there is no equally vigorous development of roots. remove the shade once the roots are well developed and begin root pruning. in nurseries at lower elevations, and with faster growing species, rooted cuttings reach plantable size by the beginning of the monsoon (five months after setting). in other cases it may be necessary to keep them in the nursery until the following monsoon. establishment and management of stool beds you can produce young material ideal for hardwood cuttings in the nursery by establishing stool beds. plant 20 to 50 plants of each of two or three species in a nursery bed and cut them back each year so they produce stool shoots from which cuttings can be made. this makes collecting cutting material easy, saves the Naike a lot of time, and ensures that juvenile material is used. prepare the ground for the stool beds by cultivating the whole area to a depth of 30 cm, dig in a doko load of compost mull for each 5 - 10 m2 and prepare the planting pits 1´ 0./5 m apart. at the beginning of the rains, plant healthy vigorous seedlings. if these steps are carried out properly and on time, you will not be need to water the plants after the monsoon. cultivate the ground periodically, and keep it completely free of weeds. allow the plants to grow for two seasons, i.e. for 18 - 20 months. one season may be sufficient in the terai and inner terai. in February (Magh - Phalgun) cut all the stems about 10 cm above the ground. you can take cuttings made from these stems, but even if cuttings are not required cut the plants back so that coppice shoots develop for use in the following year. the most important aspect of stool-bed management is ensuring that coppice shoots are cut back in February each year. you can continue this process for at least 5 years. two to three months after the plants have been cut back, thin the coppice shoots to 4- 6 shoots per stool. the first time you introduce this technique into a nursery only use the species listed in the table below, which are easy to root. if the practices described above are carried out properly, at least 60 to 80% of the cuttings will root. other species, including dudhilo (Ficus neriifolia) and gogan (Saurauia napaulensis), are more difficult to root but should give 4o to 60% success. local name botanical name Asuro Adhatoda vasica Bainsh Salix tetrosperma Bhimsenpati Buddleja asiatica Chuletro Brassaiopsis hainla Dabdabe Garuga pinnata Ghurmiso Leucosceptrum canum Kimbu Morus alba Phaledo Erythrina species Sajiwan (kadam) Jatropha curcas Simali Vitex negundo vegetative propagation of bamboos the traditional method of bamboo propagation involves using a portion of the rhizome and about two metres of the culm. details can be found in Forest Seed and Nursery Practice in Nepal and Jackson's Manual of Afforestation in Nepal. vegetative propagation of bamboos from single-node culm cuttings seed of bamboos is not often available because they flower very infrequently. even if seed is available, it takes a long time to establish bamboo clumps from seedlings. establishment by the traditional method of large culm cuttings (offsets with rhizomes, planted vertically) is not feasible on a large scale. transport costs as well as the purchase cost of the plants will be high, and sufficient numbers will not be available. by comparison, single-node culm cuttings have many advantages. for some species the method is easy, and more reliable than using seed. the rooted cuttings are cheap, easy to transport and survive well after planting. equipment required a sharp tool like a khukuri or hansiya is sufficient, but a handsaw and secateurs, for pruning branches, are useful if they are available. selection of materials take cuttings from culms in their second year of growth. If such culms are not available you can use third year culms. culms less than one year old are not strong enough to give cuttings. choose healthy culms with strong branches. avoid damaging the dormant buds in the central branches at nodes. select suitable culms one year in advance and mark them. selection of species species that are characterised by strong branch development root the most easily from culm cuttings. species that can be used are: Dhanu bans Choya/tama bans Kalo bans Bambusa balcooa Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Dendrocalamus hookeri time for taking cuttings the best months for taking culm cuttings are February and March (mid Magh to mid Chaitra). take the cuttings when the buds are ready to burst but before new growth starts. in hotter places take them earlier, generally in February (mid Magh to mid Falgun), whereas in cooler places March is best (mid Falgun to mid Chaitra). preparation of cuttings prepare the cuttings where you obtain the culms. cut the culms midway between the nodes without splitting them so that all the cuttings are single-noded. cut off the leaves and small branches as close as possible to the culm. reject material less than 4 cm in diameter from the tops of culms. prune central branches off beyond the first extended internode. you can take cuttings from culms whose buds are completely dormant or with undeveloped central branches. dip the cuttings into water or sprinkle with water immediately after preparation. transport after you have prepared cuttings of the bamboo clump, bring them to the nursery. do not allow them to dry out during transport. if they are kept in a doko or any other container, pour water on them. cover them fully with leaves and grass or wet sacks. set the cuttings in well-worked beds as soon as they reach the nursery. preparation of beds the best place to set culm cuttings is the coolest, dampest, and shadiest part of the nursery. prepare the beds with soil that has good water retaining capacity and where no water logging occurs. make them only of soil, which has been properly worked, and keep them moist. water the beds thoroughly before and after setting the cuttings. good facilities for irrigation are essential. provide shades all the year round. setting plant the cuttings horizontally with the large central branch, or the bud from which it will come, sideways at the soiled surface. the main bud at the first node of the central branch should be facing upwards. ensure that the ends of the culms are well covered with soil because all the water needed for the development of the cutting enters through the cut ends of the culm for at least the first two months. if the ends are allowed to dry out, success rates will be reduced. if the cuttings obtain enough water from the beds and do not dry out, shoots will develop in 1 to 3 weeks. most of those roots will grow to about a metre in height and produce leafy branches before beginning to root after about three months. the cuttings must be irrigated and shaded throughout this period and beyond. planting out below 1500 metres keep the cuttings in the nursery for 16 months; above 1500 metres for 28 months. after 16 to 28 months in the nursery, culm cuttings that have many rhizomes with more than three shoots will be ready for planting. this will be in June or July, when the monsoon rain starts. the recommended height of bamboo plants is at least 2 m, but if the planting site is far away you can cut them back to 50 cm for ease of transport. take precautions to ensure that they will not dry out while being transported. well wrap the rhizomes in a sack full of wet soil. make sure the rhizomes are not damaged. cut most of the remaining leaves in half to reduce transpiration. preparation of cuttings here, you will prepare the cuttings for planting in nurseries. your exercise will mainly be centred to the preparation of following things. grass slips stolon cuttings culm cuttings stem cuttings rhizome cuttings stump cuttings each of you will prepare at least 10 samples and exhibits it to your partner. latter you will present how cutting are prepared and what were the parameter considered in this process. seed sowing and planting of cuttings grass seed the seeds of grasses are treated like the seeds of other species except that the whole seed head is used. collect the seed heads when they are ripe and dry them in the sun. separate them from the leaves and stems, and then store them in hessian or polythene bags in a dry, well-ventilated place. if you use polythene bags, make sure that the heads are completely dry or they will go mouldy. most grass seeds will remain viable several years, but you should use them within one year if possible. sow the whole remains of the seed heads on the surface of a recently cultivated bed. dense sowing is usually the best method, so that several thousand seeds germinate per square metre. very young grass seedlings can be scorched by the sun and killed if they do not have enough shade. you can avoid this problem by covering the seed heads immediately after sowing with a layer of hessian jute and water this well. Keep the jute damp as much as possible, because very intense sun can dry out the surface even underneath it. remove the hessian in stages once the seedlings are about 1 cm long. first remove it for a few hours during the early morning and late afternoon, then for longer, and finally completely. thin the seedlings heavily from time to time. most of the soil conservation grasses require quite warm temperatures before the seeds will germinate. this may be an in-built survival mechanism, as small seeds do not have very big reserves. in order to overcome this problem, do not sow too early. if you have to sow early, you can use cloches to increase the temperature in the seedbed. a cloche is made by placing bamboo hoops across the bed, and covering the bed with polythene, which is kept well clear of the seeds. shrub and tree seed preparation and sowing treating seed for germination most species used for bioengineering have seeds that will germinate quickly when sown. others may take several months to germinate unless they are treated properly. such seeds are said to be dormant. there are several ways to overcome dormancy, depending on the species. avoiding dormancy: some species (e.g. lankuri and some legumes) become dormant only when the fruits are fully ripe. collect them just before they go from green to their ripe colour, sow them immediately and the seeds will germinate quickly in the nursery. soaking: many species have seeds that will germinate much more quickly and uniformly if they are soaked in warm water for a few days before sowing. change the water every day, and do not use very cold water. treat hard-coated seeds as described below before soaking. chipping: many species (especially legumes, such as kalo siris, khayer, rato siris, seto siris) have seeds with hard coats that will not let water in unless they are broken. do this by cutting off a small piece of the seed coat with nail clippers on the side of the seed opposite the hilum (the scar from which the seedling root emerges), so as not to damage the seedling root. hot water: hard-coated seeds can be treated with hot water. pour the seeds into a large quantity of water that has just gone off the boil, and leave them for several minutes- the time depending on the species. pour the hot water off, replace it by cool water, and allow the seeds to soak for 24 hours. apply this method carefully, and observe the proper timing, so you do not kill the seed. further details are in Forest Seed and Nursery Practice in Nepal. cold and moist treatment (stratification): some hill species (e.g. dhale katus, lankuri, musure katus) have seeds, which ripen before or during winter and need to be cold and moist for a few months to enable them to germinate. you can sow the seed in a seedbed as soon as it is received, protect it from rodents, and keep it moist all the time. the cold of winter will treat the seeds, so they germinate easily in warmer weather. if rodents are a problem, mix the seeds with damp sand and put them in a container, as described in the notes on the storage of recalcitrant seeds. bury the container just below the soil surface so that it gets cold. simple seed testing if you know what proportion of the seeds are viable before they are sown you can adjust the sowing density, or the nursery techniques can be checked if too few seeds come up. you can simply test germination as follows. fill a shallow dish, large enough to take 100 seeds spaced out so they do not touch, with moist fine sand. sow the seeds on the surface, press them in and just cover them by sprinkling on dry sand. if the sand is we1t enough, the dry sand will become dark. put the dish in a plastic bag, which is full of air, and seal the bag with string. Put the bag in a warm place near light, but out of the direct sun. wait and count how many germinate. if you used 100 seeds the number of seeds that germinate will equal the germination percentage. do not count very small seeds, but measure out a fixed volume (e.g. one khaine tin) and sow this. give the rate of germination as the number of seedlings per tin. sowing seeds direct sowing into containers or sowing into a seedbed and pricking out sowing seed directly into polypots, or at wide spacing in beds, avoids the damage and root distortion caused by pricking out. this is when you move the young seedling from the seedbed to the polypot. you must avoid root distortion when stumps are being grown, as in the case of sissoo. sowing into seedbeds has the following advantages:      - sowing in seed beds is less wasteful of seed, especially seed which is so        small that many have to be sown in each pot (e.g. uttis, nimaro, gogan);      - sowing in seed beds and transplanting to polypots takes less space         in a nursery; and      - you can more easily give extra attention to watering, shading and protecting        from diseases, insects and rodents, to seed sown in a small area        of seed bed. sowing in seedbeds or seed trays is also recommended when:      - viability is expected to be low (less than 40%);      - germination is prolonged e.g. for champ;      - several plants germinate from one stone e.g. bakeno and lapsi;      - seed is very small e.g. uttis, masala (eucalyptus), figs (Ficus species)        and gogan; and      - the seed is very scarce or expensive. sowing into seed beds or seed trays in Nepal most seed which is not sown directly into polypots is sown into seed beds. seed trays are not commonly used but they have several advantages. they are portable, so germination can take place protected from heavy rain and drying out under the roof of a soil shed, and then the trays can be carried to the beds for pricking out. sowing small seeds in seed beds or seed trays estimate the sowing density so there will be about 4,000 seedlings per m2. as an example, gogan has 8-14 million seeds per kg. assume there are 10 million per kg, and that effective germination will be 25%. the percentage is low because experience has shown that Naikes have great difficulty in germinating very small seeds. If 25% of 1 gm of seed (i.e. about 10,000 seeds) germinates, we can expect 2,500 seedlings. dividing the desired seedling density (i.e. 4,000/m2) by 2,500 we get the weight of seed to sow on 1 m2 as 1.6g. fill the beds or trays with soil mixture, press it down with a small block and water it. the surface must be perfectly level. broadcast the seed over the surface. distribute the seed evenly by placing it on a flat piece of card, holding this just above the seed tray and tapping it lightly underneath. the seed bounces off, and it is easy to control its distribution. mix small seed with two or three times its volume of clean, fine, dry sand and spread it lightly and as evenly as possible over the surface. after sowing, cover the seed evenly with pure washed sand. use just enough to cover the seed. if the cover is too thick the seed will fail to germinate or will germinate underneath the cover but not be seen. too little is better than too much, but with too little there is an increased risk of seed drying out or being moved during watering. make the seed cover firm with a wooden block, cover lightly with a mulch of rice husks, pine needles or straw and water the tray with a watering can fitted with a fine rose. the mulch will protect the seed from drying out. Protect the bed or tray from heavy rain with a strong shade. small seeds must not be allowed to dry out, so you must inspect the trays several times as day and water when necessary. however, too much water will also reduce germination. germination is usually fairly rapid with this technique as is shown in the table below. name of plants weeks from sowing to start of germination(weeks) germination period (weeks) time from start of germination until pricking out begins (weeks) number of primary leaves at pricking out Uttis 1-2 2 4-5 2-4 Eucalyptus 1 1 1-2 4 Figs 2-3 4-5 2-3 3-5 Gogan 3-6 4-5 6-8 2-cm rosette after germination, check the actual number of seedlings produced. you can use this information to estimate sowing densities more accurately in the future. when germination is nearly finished remove the mulch, but keep the trays under waterproof shade, until the seedlings are almost ready for pricking out. at this stage, expose them to full light for a few hours each day. If the soil becomes too wet, or if damping off becomes a problem, allow them to dry out a little by moving them out of the fully shaded area. sowing larger seeds in seed beds seedbeds may be used for germinating all of the larger seeds. they are almost always used for bakeno, champ, kangiyo, lapsi, lankuri and painyu. before you sow, rake the top layer to make sure there are no stones or lumps, press it down with a flat wooden board and make sure the surface stays perfectly level. the soil should be so firm that a clenched fist pressed into the surface will leave only a slight impression. water the bed lightly and sow the seed either broadcast or in drills. sow large seed such as bakeno, katus, lapsi and okhar in drills 5-10 cm apart across the bed by pressing the seed into the soil and covering it with 5 mm of soil. sow these kinds of seed on their sides to ease the emergence of the shoot and root. broadcast smaller seeds at a density calculated to produce about 2,000 seedlings per square metre. after sowing smaller seed, press it into the seedbed with a flat wooden board. cover it with clean sharp sand and press down again with the board. cover with a mulch of straw, to conserve moisture, or cover the bed with a shade. if rodents are a problem, and seeds are being sown that they eat, stretch of fine wire mesh across the bed and dig the edges 5 cm into the soil. when germination is well under way remove both the mulch and the wire mesh. sowing directly into pots sowing one or more seeds directly into polypots is often the best method for seeds, which are large enough to be handled individually, and which have high germination percentages. species usually sown in this way are: acacias e.g. khayer, areri, badahar, chiuri, chuletro, salla, siris, and tanki. thoroughly water the pots the evening before sowing and lightly water again immediately before sowing. push the seed into the soil surface in the centre of the pot and cover it with sand. never sow seed deeper than twice its width and in any case not more than 5 mm deep. cover the pots with straw mulch or shade and water again. you usually need to sow two or more seeds in each pot. the right number depends on the germination expected. it is wasteful if too many seeds are sown. as a general rule sow as follows: expected germination % seeds in each pot more than 80 1 or 2* 60-79 2 40-59 3 * sow 1 seed in half the pots and 2 seeds in the other half. sow seed expected to have germination less than 40% in seedbeds and prick out into polypots. after germination, pots will have 0, 1, 2, or more seedlings each. when germination is almost finished, prick out plants from pots that have more than one into pots without any. this may still leave some pots with more than one seedling. if the extra ones are not removed they will share the nutrients, moisture and light that is available for one pot, and very inferior plants will be produced. do not be tempted to leave two or more plants per pot with the idea that if one dies there will still be another. remove the extra plants, once germination and pricking out have been successfully completed, by pulling them up or by breaking or cutting the stem near soil level. the quantity of seed required and the number of pots to be filled depends on the viability of the seed and the standard of care and attention. once germination is finished not all the seedlings will survive to planting time and even then, some seedlings will be of poor quality, so that they cannot be used. The following example illustrates this point. you want to produce 4,000 seedlings of kutmero. seed is collected locally and is expected to have an effective germination of 70% experience shows that about 85% of the plants will survive the growing period in the nursery and about 80% of these will be the right size and quality for planting. if we want 4,000 seedlings, but only 80% of the plants surviving to pricking out will be the right size and quality. therefore, we need to be able to select from: 100/80 ´ 4,000 = 5,000 seedlings if only 85% of the germinated seedlings survive, we need: 100/85 ´ 5,000 = 5,883 seedlings. but only 70% of the seeds are expected to germinate, therefore from the table above we know that we need to sow two seeds per pot and we will need 11,766 seeds. one kg of fruit gives about 3,500 seeds, so you need to collect: 11,766/3,500 = 3.4 kg of fruit.