care of young plants and hardening off environment management shading plants in all nurseries in Nepal require shading. it is needed for a variety of reasons at different stages of growth but needs to be used carefully. unfortunately, it is often poorly managed or misused. the shades may be left on for too long or used at the wrong time. although the comparatively cool, humid conditions in the nursery are good for young plants, they will suffer severe shock if they are suddenly exposed to normal conditions, especially if these are hot and dry. as a result their chances of survival are much lower. it is usually needed during germination, for protecting recently pricked out seedlings, and for protection against adverse climate such as excessively hot sun, heavy rain, hail, or frost. shade reduces the daytime temperature and the rate of evaporation from the bed, particularly under hot sun. it generally makes conditions more uniform throughout the twenty-four hours. shade also reduces the amount of light reaching the plants. if it is left on too long the plants will grow tall, thin and weak or 'etiolated'. the plants may even lose their natural green colour and become yellowish or 'chloritic'. in winter, if there is a danger of frost, erect shades each evening and remove them early the following morning. do not leave them on all day at this season. frost protection shades are most effective when they are just a few centimetres above the plants. similarly, shades for protection against hail should only be erected when required and not left on indefinitely. hail usually occurs in the months immediately before the monsoon and during this period erect shades at night or when staffs are absent from the nursery during the day. when the nursery staff are present they should only erect the shades when a storm is seen to be coming. similarly, during the monsoon, shade for protection against the rain should only be used when it is actually raining or at night or during the day when staff are absent. shade helps germinating plants because it slows the drying out of the growing medium and the seed. it also prevents damage from rain. shade over germinating seed should be waterproof. plants also require shade for a few days after they have been pricked out, to protect them from the sun and to keep the soil moist. however, shade over pricked-out seedlings is often kept too long. remove it gradually, starting as soon as new leaf development is seen. at first, take the shades off for a short time in the morning and afternoon, keeping them in place at the hottest times. gradually increase the time they are removed each day until after about a week the shade can be completely removed, without causing any damage to the plants. the amount of shade needed during germination and after pricking out varies with the weather. if it is used when it is not necessary, for example during spells of cool cloudy weather, the beds may become too moist and this often leads to the development of damping-off disease. make shades of locally available materials. they should be easy for one person to handle and movable but capable of being fixed so that they cannot be blown away in strong winds. the height of the shade depends on its use. it should be about 30 cm above seedbeds and recently pricked out seedlings, and 75 cm above ground level for protecting larger seedlings against hail, hot sun and heavy rain. construct beds along an east-west line if possible and the shade should slope downwards from north to south. the slope carries water off and the alignment gives maximum protection against the mid-day sun. you can make shades from woven bamboo matting, hessian cloth or the stalks of maize or wheat. they should be wide enough to overhang the bed slightly and can be up to two metres long. shades made from crop residues, grasses or leaves will only last one season. longer lasting shades can be made from wooden or bamboo slats tied together with spaces between them to allow some light and air to penetrate. they can be rolled up for easy storage and unrolled very quickly when needed. they are heavy enough not to need fixing. they can have polythene sheets spread over them to make them waterproof when necessary. watering watering in most small nurseries is done with 8 litre watering cans or a hose pipe with a watering rose. these are the most appropriate and efficient methods. watering with a hose means water does not need to be carried around the nursery, but needs a source of water under pressure, usually a tank above the nursery. use a hose with more care than a watering can to ensure a uniform application. labourers may try to speed the process up by removing the rose and using their fingers on the end of the hose to direct a jet of water at the beds. this damages both plants and soil and should not be done. in a standard nursery producing 25,000 plants, a watering can is best. use two sizes of rose, a fine rose for use on seedbeds and recently pricked out seedlings and one with a heavier spray for watering well-established plants and grass slips. there are no rules for watering and it is a mistake to try to teach Naikes to water on a fixed schedule. the amount and frequency of watering required varies with weather conditions, species, stage of development of the plants, soil type, and nursery management such as the use of shade. an inexperienced Naike cannot be expected to know how often and how heavily to water. it is far better to teach the Naike the basic principles of plant water requirements and develop their experience. a good Naike will quickly learn from experience. keep seedbeds, seed trays and recently pricked out seedlings moist but never allow them to become saturated. this often means frequent, small applications of water, sometimes two or more per day. however, shading and mulching reduce the need for frequent watering. in cool cloudy weather water may not be required at all on some days. check the beds periodically so that decisions can be made on the needs of the seeds or plants. remember that the object is to keep the seeds or the seedling roots moist but not soaking wet. the rate of growth of plants in polypots or beds depends on the water supply. plants, which have begun to grow, again after pricking out usually need watering once a day in the evening, but under very dry conditions, they may need watering twice a day. when the plants are 10 -15 cm in height only water them once a day. if they are growing too quickly, you can water less frequently. always do this towards the end of the nursery growing period as part of a process known as 'hardening off' the seedlings. unfortunately, in Nepal the period just before planting is characterised by pre-monsoon rains, so the nurseryman loses some control over watering, and cannot harden off the plants as well as he would like. because of these rains, it may only be necessary to water very occasionally from April to June (Baishakh to Jestha). apply enough water to wet the soil to a depth of 20 - 25 cm in beds and the whole of the soil in pots. you may have to water in two or three stages depending on the soil texture. if water is forming in pools on the surface of the bed or pot, the soil either has enough water already or it needs time to sink in. stop watering, wait 5-10 minutes and then check to see if the water has penetrated deeply enough or if more is required. after watering, the soil should not be so moist that water can be squeezed out of it by hand pressure. weed, lichen and moss growth on the soil surface slows down and even prevents water infiltration into the soil. with heavier soils the surface may become 'crusted' or compacted, and this also hinders infiltration. keep the surface free of weeds and break up crusted or compacted soils by cultivating the beds with hand tools, and the soil surface of pots with small sticks. always check the soil to the required depth before and after watering, to see if watering is required and when enough has been applied. too much water is likely to cause just as many problems as too little. one of the most frequent causes of fungal diseases is excessive moisture. you can water very small seed by placing a seed tray, with holes in its base, inside another slightly larger tray containing water for a few hours. the germination medium in the seed tray will absorb water from the outer tray. you can add water to the outer tray when the surface of the germination medium shows signs of drying out. this is one way of avoiding the problems of watering small seeds with watering cans. nursery irrigation system in nurseries on fairly level ground with an abundant supply of water you can use flood or capillary irrigation for plants in beds. this is particularly useful in large grass nurseries. in both these methods water is taken to the beds through a series of canals. a main canal distributes water from the source to a series of secondary canals built at progressively lower levels. water is directed into any particular part of the nursery by opening and closing the entrances to the canals. you can do this with short lengths of bamboo, which can be stopped up, passing through the walls of the main canals, or wooden or metal plates can block the canal opening, or water can be allowed to pass by simply breaking down and later rebuilding the canal walls. in capillary irrigation, canals are built below the level of the beds, about one metre apart. water is directed to the canals around a section of beds and the canals are left full so that the water moves into the beds from beneath and is immediately available in the rooting zone. flood irrigation canals are built above the level of the beds and may be as much as 10 m apart. water from them is flooded onto the beds, which must be very level. this system can damage the plants if silt collects on them and it may block up the pores in the soil surface and form a hard crust, impeding water infiltration. It also tends to cause fungal diseases. both systems require well-planned nursery beds, canal systems, and large quantities of water. they are not likely to become important in small nurseries in Nepal.                                        spacing out plants re-spacing grasses grasses can be multiplied rapidly in the nursery, particularly if they are planted as slips into beds by the best method for each species. when they have grown up and completely fill the beds and the clumps have almost joined, lift them, split them, and plant them again. by re-spacing the grasses, you can maximise the rate of shoot and root production. one bed of large plants ready for splitting usually fills at least three beds once transplanted. this can be done three times a year in a fertile nursery below 500 metres altitude but correspondingly less frequently with increasing altitude. do not re-space within six weeks of the grass plants being required for transfer to site. the lifting, splitting, and replanting procedures are exactly the same as for the initial planting. the slips should be shaded with a sheet of hessian and watered for a few days after re-spacing. pricking out this is the process of transferring seedlings from the seedbeds to polypots. It is a very delicate operation, which should be done with great care, preferably by workers with previous experience. for most species, the best time is shortly after germination, when the seedlings have only three or four primary leaves in addition to the cotyledons. if pricking out is delayed, the roots will be too long, and many lateral roots will haveloped. the seedlings are then much more difficult to prick out without damaging, or distorting the roots. pine seedlings can be pricked out three or four days after germination, when the seed coat is still attached to the cotyledons giving the appearance of a matchstick. do the pricking out on a cloudy day or in the later afternoon or evening. use the following sequence of operations for good survival after pricking out:      1 one day before thoroughly water the compost in the polypots into which the seedlings will be pricked out. ensure that        shades are erected and in good order.      2 immediately before starting to prick out, lightly water the seed trays or seedbeds.      3 remove the seedlings from the seedbeds by inserting a flat stick under them         and gently lifting. take care to do as little damage as possible to the roots.         hold the seedlings by the leaves or cotyledons. never touch the stem or         roots. take just enough seedlings for about fifteen minutes pricking out, and         keep them in a dish of water. keep this shaded so that the small quantity of         water in the dish does not heat up rapidly in the sun and kill the seedlings. do         not let the roots dry out.      4 if the seedlings are in a seed tray, take it to the bed and remove plants as         required.      5 make a hole in the soil, in the centre of the pot, with a pointed wooden stick         a little thicker than a pencil. the hole must be deep and wide enough to         contain the seedling's roots without bending them.      6 hold the seedling's root in the hole with the root collar just below the soil         surface. do not bend the roots into a J or U shape. if any of the roots are too         long, cut them to the desired length with your fingernails or a sharp blade.         do not leave the primary leaves in contact with the soil surface.      7 have a 1: a mixture of finely sieved soil, sand available at the bed, and use         this to fill the hole. this will prevent any pockets of air remaining around the         root. alternatively, insert the stick used for making the hole about one         centimetre away and close the hole around the root by levering the stick         back and forth. be careful to close the hole throughout its depth, and not just         at the top.      8 lightly water the seedlings and ensure that the soil around the roots remains         fairly moist but not saturated, as this would lead to rotting, by lightly watering         two or three times a day for the next few days. keep the shades on         throughout this period.      9 three or four days after pricking out, replace any plants that have died, by         repeating the above procedure. when the seedlings have started to produce new leaves, start to remove the shade as explained earlier. generally, after about a week no shade should be given. in general, shades should be removed sooner rather than later, and only very rarely will they be needed for more than two or three weeks after pricking out. if the seedlings show signs of heavy wilting the shades are still required. removing some of the older leaves by pinching the leafstalk with your fingernail can also reduce wilting. Take care not to damage the stem. some nurseries suffer significant losses after pricking out. the most common causes are:      - drying out of the roots during the operation;      - physical damage to the seedling, especially the stem and roots;      - leaving air pockets around roots instead of ensuring that they are in contact        with the soil;      - too little, or too much watering in the days immediately after pricking out;      - damping-off disease, usually related to excessive watering;      - extremely hot and sunny weather, or ineffective shade.                                      polypot management spacing out polypot seedlings plants growing close together in the nursery compete for moisture, nutrients, and light. their growth and form is affected and they become tall and thin, with weak, soft stems, and poorly developed root systems. when the plants are in polypots, the density is determined by the number of seedlings growing in each pot, the size of the pot and the space between one pot and another. after direct sowing, many pots may contain two or more seedlings. reduce the number in each pot to one. use the extra seedlings for pricking out into pots with no seedling, or simply destroy them. sometimes nurserymen will leave two seedlings in a pot thinking that if one dies there will still be a plantable seedling left. two seedlings may be produced but both are likely to be of unacceptably poor quality for planting out. plants grown in 4"´ 7" pots to a height of over 30 cm do not have enough growing space. provide additional space by separating the rows of pots across the bed, leaving a space of up to 10 cm between them. you can make the spaces with wooden sticks, bamboo laths, bricks, stones, or old filled polypots without seedlings. spacing between plants within the rows is not necessary. spacing requires more bed area in the nursery and you must consider this in planning bed sizes. where insufficient area is available, spacing only between pairs of rows is a reasonable compromise. as well as encouraging more uniform growth, spacing assists the process of hardening off, by encouraging the development of a more lignified and better-proportioned stem. height growth is reduced but root-collar diameter and overall shoot biomass remain about the same. this improves the overall quality of the seedlings. when to space the plants depends on the growth habits of the different species. usually it should be done when competition sets in, or when the need to control height growth becomes evident, whichever is earlier. do not do it when pots are first placed in the beds, because this will reduce the availability of moisture during the plants early growth. where possible, time spacing to coincide with root pruning. while the plants are being handled they can also be graded by height, with those of similar height set out together. this minimises plant disturbance and maximises the utilisation of nursery labour time. the relationship between plant quality and spacing in the bed means that appropriate spacing is equally important for the production of stumps and bare-root plants. it is most easily achieved by growing plants in lines across or along the bed. sow sufficient seed so that optimum spacing along the lines can be achieved by thinning out extra plants. for good quality stumps, a minimum spacing of 10 ´ 10 cm between seedlings is required. root-pruning polypot seedlings one reason for root pruning is to prevent the growth of excessively long roots in the nursery. if long roots are allowed to form, they must be cut when the plants are transferred to the field. this can results in death or severe shock. a second reason is to modify the characteristics of the seedling. root pruning can have the following effects on plants in the nursery:      - reduction of shoot growth, both height and overall mass;      - increased lignifications of the stem, which helps the 'hardenings off' process;      - reduction of overall root growth, but less than that of shoot growth;      - modification of root form by stimulating the development of lateral roots and        restricting tap root development, although this is less desirable for some        bioengineering functions. overall, the effect is to produce a stronger and better-balanced plant, with a greater root to shoot ratio. this ratio is an indicator of plant quality. generally root-pruning increases the ratio because the reduction in growth of the shoot is greater than that of the root. root growth is also restricted to a manageable size for planting. plant roots usually grow quickly to the base of the pot and will then grow round in coils unless they can get out. when the seedling is planted, this coil remains and the roots forming it get larger as the plant grows. such roots eventually strangle each other, causing a reduction in growth and sometimes death. the knot of roots, which develops may act as a weak point or pivot so that the tree may be blown over by strong winds. one answer to root coiling is to cut off the bottom one or two centimetres of the root ball immediately before planting the seedlings. this removes the root coil and can account for as much as half of the root mass, but it does not permit any management of the plant and obviously leaves a very poor root system. efficiently carried out root-pruning helps to reduce or prevent root coiling. the polypots should have a number of well-formed holes of adequate size in the lower third, to facilitate the growth of the roots out of the pot into the soil in the bed beneath. allowing the roots to grow out of the pots reduces coiling and permits effective root-pruning. efficient root-pruning cannot be done if the roots do not have ample opportunity to grow out of the pot. prune roots by lifting up the pots and breaking protruding roots cleanly with the fingernails, a pair of scissors, or a sharp blade. when to start, and how often to prune roots, varies with the altitude of the nursery and the species? you can check the need for it easily by lifting up a few pots to see if roots have grown out of them. do not allow the roots to develop too well in the soil beneath the pots, because the shock when they are eventually broken off may cause the shoot to die back, and in some cases the plant may die. if root pruning causes the plant to wilt slightly, it has been done at the right time. as with watering, root-pruning cannot be carried out according to a fixed timetable but must be done according to the needs of the plant, as ascertained by frequent checks.                                       weed, pest, and disease control weeding weeds compete with plants for moisture, nutrients, and light and must be carefully controlled in the whole of the nursery area. keep the fence line, unused areas and paths all weed free. weeds, which are left to flower and seed in any part of the nursery, create more problems and work, so this should never happen. weed throughout the whole year. less time will be needed for weeding if it is done frequently, so that the weeds are small. their removal complete with roots is easy, and damage to the plants is minimised. water the beds or pots before you start to weed, and pull the weeds out with their roots. if the roots cannot be pulled out, weeding has been started too late. in some nurseries a growth a algae, moss and lichens may develop on the surface of the beds or pots. this is often associated with compaction of the soil surface. it slows down the infiltration of water and air into the soil and must be prevented by periodic cultivation of the soil surface with a small stick. if the growth is allowed to develop into a thick layer it can only be removed by taking away a layer of soil with it, which may lead to the exposure of roots. if this happens fill the pots up with more soil. when plants are grown in beds, it is easier to weed in between them with a narrow blade if they are grown in straight lines along or across the beds. use the blade to dig out weeds between the lines. remove the weeds in the lines by hand. insect and mammal pest control serious losses from insect damage are less common than losses from disease, but they are occasionally severe in some nurseries. once again prevention is better than cure. good nursery practice, in particular keeping the whole area free of weeds, and cultivating any unoccupied areas during the winter is required. damage by insect larvae can lead to serious losses, especially just after germination. some types live in the soil and some out to fee at night. they usually cut the stem of the young plant close to the soil surface, and they may eat the leaves. other types just eat the leaves. where possible it is best to control larvae by carefully examining the beds each day, picking off any that are found and squashing them. insecticides containing methyl parathion, such as Metacid and Paramar are effective. make a 0.05 % solution (i.e. mix 1 ml with 2 litres of water) and apply this with a sprayer if possible, or if not, watering can with a fine rose. you need to measure the very small quantities of chemical needed accurately with a 4 ml hypodermic syringe. adding 1 ml of a 'sticker', such as Triton AE, to each litre of the mixture, will help the insecticide stay on the plant longer and be effective for longer. the 'white grub' is an insect larva, which is a major pest. it lives in the soil and eats plant roots. it is a large, thick, white larva, usually C-shaped, and may be more than 3 cm long. it passes the winter deep in the soil, and comes up to feed nearer the surface in the spring. affected plants first become chlorotic. growth is stunted until they either die, or recover by regenerating new roots - which may also be attacked. white grubs are most commonly found polypots. chemical control measures recommended are to mix a 10 % BHC or Aldrin dust into the top 30 cm of the soil at 5 - 10 gm/m2. crickets and grasshoppers can also be a problem. you can control them by regularly cultivating all areas not being used for plant production, including paths, to a depth of 10 cm, in the winter. cultivation brings the eggs to the surface where they die. applying Metacid as described above will also control these insects. ants will occasionally eat seed after sowing. if this is a problem, sprinkle the area lightly with Aldrin dust. use of the seeds and leaves of the nim tree (Azadirachia indica) to control insects, although not practised in Nepal, is worth trying. they contain a chemical, azadirachtin, which has insecticidal properties. digging them into the beds, or mixing them with other tree seed for storage, may reduce insect damage. farmers in India store grain mixed with him leaves and also obtain an extract by crushing the fruit in water, which they use for spraying their crops in the fields. it is said that bakeno has similar properties. rodents often cause very serious losses of seed. it is usually the larger seeds, including those of the pines, which are eaten. the only reliable prevention is to cover the seedbeds in fine wire mesh, digging the edges of the mesh into the soil. this also prevents birds from eating the seed. cattle, goats, pigs, dogs, and chickens must be completely excluded from the nursery by constant maintenance of the fence or wall. fungal diseases control two fungal diseases are important in nurseries in Nepal: damping-off and brown needle disease. the latter only affects pines. it is discussed in Forest Seed and Nursery Practice in Nepal. damping-off affects young seedlings. it may be caused by many different fungi, which are always present in soils. good nursery management involves stopping them from killing seedlings. there are three types:      - pre-emergent damping-off, in which the fungus attacks the seed and the        newly developing root before the shoot emerges from the soil. it can easily        be confused with poor germination that is due to the seed having poor        viability;      - post-emergent damping-off, in which the fungus attacks the base of the stem        or roots after the seedling has emerged from the soil. the plant falls over and        rots quickly. this usually occurs within 2-3 weeks of germination, while the        stem is still soft. it is easy to recognise, but can be confused with insect        damage to roots and the seedling stem-base. it often occurs in patches        on the seedbed, with the most recently affected plants at the outside of the        patch. it can spread very rapidly unless corrective action is taken as soon        as noticed; all the plants in a seedbed can be killed within 48 hours;     - root rot is not always regarded as damping-off although it is often caused by       the same fungi. it affects older seedlings than the other two types. the first       signs are yellowish (chlorotic) foliage, usually in the upper leaves first. this is       followed by the wilting, discoloration and death of the shoot, after which the       lower leaves may show signs of secondary fungal attack. some of the roots       will be seen to be soft and rotten or already dead. a good test is to see if the       outer root layer can easily be pulled away from the inner core, also, when       healthy roots are broken a sharp snap should be heard, but this will not       happen if they are affected by root rot. unfortunately, the first visible symptom       of root rot, chlorosis, can be caused by many other problems such as a       shortage of nutrients, too much or too little watering, or insect or nematode       damage. in small bioengineering nurseries, where soil sterilisation and extensive use of fungicides are not practicable, prevention and control of damping-off depends on good nursery techniques. damping-off fungi thrive in warm, moist, shady conditions and the most common cause is excessive moisture. this is something, which can be controlled, and the Naike should prevent damping-off by:      - not over-watering;      - removing shade as soon as it becomes unnecessary;      - not sowing seed too deep;      - where possible, sowing in the dry season;      - ensuring free air circulation over the beds;      - keeping the nursery free of weeds and old unmanaged seedlings;      - not including compost or fertilisers in the sowing medium;      - using a well drained, sandy medium;      - using pure sand as a seed cover; and      - avoiding transplanting damage by always handling seedlings carefully by the        cotyledons or leaves, not by the stems or roots and where possible by        sowing seed directly into polypots or stand-out beds. if damping-off occurs, reduce watering, remove shade, and if possible protect the plants from rain by moving the seed trays under cover, or covering the beds with plastic sheets, during heavy showers. once the disease is established it is very difficult to control. try to prevent it altogether, but if it does happen, act quickly to prevent it spreading. if fungicides are available, they can be used to help prevent damping-off spreading to other plants, but they will not have much effect once it is well developed. mix 25 g of Blitox (a blue coloured powder) with 5 litres of water, and apply to the affected plants with a watering can twice a week.                                     safe handling of chemicals the fungicides and pesticides used in nurseries are all dangerous chemicals, which need to be handled with extreme caution. partly because of this they are not often used in bioengineering nurseries. under present conditions, their increased use is not encouraged. most of the problem for which they are used can be solved by improved nursery management. occasional serious losses can be accepted as the cost of not introducing dangerous chemicals into conditions where their careful use cannot be guaranteed. if they are going to be used nursery workers who handle them should be taught the following rules and made to follow them:      - keep the chemicals locked up in a dry place, away from food, and out of        reach of children, a locked tin trunk is good;      - ensure that they are well packed, in labelled glass or plastic containers with        screw tops. some of these chemicals are sold in thin un-labelled plastic bags        and should be repacked before they are issued from the division office;      - never eat, drink or smoke while handling or applying chemicals;      - after handling them, brush off any powder that has spilt on clothes, and        always wash thoroughly with soap;      - wash out watering cans or sprayers immediately after use;      - do not store unused chemicals that have been made up in solutions;      - pour away any unused solutions, and wash sprayers and watering cans,        well away from streams and rivers; and      - do not re-use or throw away empty chemical containers, but bury them        in a pit at least 1 metre deep.   hardening, lifting, preparing for transport, and caring for plants on site                                             preparation in nursery hardening-off in a nursery we try to produce ideal conditions for plant growth. when the plants are planted out they often face conditions that are far from ideal. they may face strong competition from weeds. they may receive excess rain or suffer from an interruption in the rains. in the nursery we must get them accustomed to, and able to tolerate, more difficult conditions. this is achieved through the process known as 'hardening-off'. its main features are:      - removal of shade at an early stage;      - spacing;      - reduction of watering. shoot-pruning sometimes plants are produced which are larger than required. the shoots of many specie, such as painyu and uttis, can be cut back. do this to a height of 20 cm at least two weeks before planting on site. remember, however, that the roots of overgrown plants will also be too long, and must also be pruned. only consider shoot-pruning polypot seedlings in exceptional circumstances. it should not form part of the routine in the nursery. culling there will always be some plants, which are not good enough for planting out in the stock produced in a nursery. sort the plants out so that only those suitable for planting and with a good chance of survival, are used. this is not often done in Nepal, but it must be introduced if bioengineering planting is to be successful. planting out poor seedlings is a waste of money and opportunity. destroy poor plants that are likely to die after planting because of their conditions, before they leave the nursery. this will save the cost of planting them, and also of the replanting which will have to be done later. it is perfectly normal to reject as many as 20 % of the plants in a bioengineering nursery because they are not suitable for planting and you should have taken this into consideration in planting the annual production. as an example, if 20,000 plants are needed planning and budgeting must allow for the production of at least 25,000. cull thoroughly, following a previously planned specification, which includes size, health, no distorted growth and lack of any damage. keep the specification easy to apply. this should make it much easier to introduce the idea to Naikes who at present are unfamiliar with it and may be reluctant to throw apparently sound plants away. reject all plants, which do not meet the specification. to help control pests and diseases, burn all plants, except those which are expected to reach a suitable size before the end of the planting season, i.e. the end of July. there is a tendency in Nepal not to destroy any rejected seedlings but to keep them for planting later, or even until the next year. discourage this most strongly. the plants usually become oversized, they form centres from which diseases can spread and their roots become severely distorted when they are kept in polypots for too long. seedlings that are slightly undersized at the end of the planting season cannot be kept until the following season. take a similar approach to stumps. after the stumps have been prepared, sort them. retain only those that meet the following specifications.      - root collar diameter between 7 and 20 mm; root undamaged and straight; and      - stump well made, with a maximum of 5 cm shoot and 25 cm root. destroy all other stumps.                     preparation for transport to site and care on site preparing and packing for transport grass slips lift grass clumps carefully, with an intact root ball, so that the roots are not damaged. wrap the root ball in wet hessian. split them out on site. trim the roots and stems to length, as for nursery planting. wrap bundles of slips in wet hessian until they are needed for planting by the site labourers. do not let them get exposed to direct sun because this will dry out the grass slips very rapidly. at every stage, encourage labourers to treat the grasses as if they are slips of millet or rice, which are being transplanted. polypots thoroughly water plants in polypots 2 - 3 days before they are to be transported, and again lightly water them the evening before planting. soil that is too wet or too dry tends to break up and this can cause root damage. thorough watering in advance is very important because is helps the plant withstand dry periods immediately after planting - one of the major advantage of using polypot plants. handle the plants by the container, not by their shoots. the stress caused caused by the transfer from nursery to plantation is great enough, without adding to it unnecessarily. when you are handling and transporting seedlings, ensure that the soil round the roots in not broken or damaged. pack them vertically and close together so that they cannot shake about or fall over during transport. however, in packing them closely together do not force them as this will also break the soil cone and damage the roots. if wheelbarrows can be used on site transport the polypots in trays made of metal or wood. a 40 ´ 25 cm tray, with sides 10 - 12 cm high, containing about twenty-four 4" ´ 7" polypots. weighs about 12 kg and can be safely handled by one person. paint numbers on the trays to make it easy to deep track of them and ensure they all come back to the nursery. although they are not ideally suited to the purpose, you can use dokos used for carrying plants where wheelbarrows are not suitable. fill the bottom of the doko with straw or some other light material to form a firm level base for the plants to stand on. pack the seedlings so that they are vertical and will not shake about. about 40 plants in 4" ´ 7" polypots can be transported at a time. never allow the pots to be bundled together and tied with string. it breaks the soil root ball and damages the roots of all the plants on the outside of the bundle. other plants stumps are easy to transport; which is their major advantage. wrap them in wet jute cloth, tie the bundles with string, and keep them in a cool shady place. do not let them dry out. dig up bare-root plants carefully, shake the soil off their roots, cull and then make up bundles fo 100 to 300 with only the roots wrapped in saturated jute cloth. do this work quickly and in the shade. bare-root seedlings can also be transported in plastic buckets with their roots submerged in a mixture of 1 kg clay in 1 litre of water. never take more planting stock to site than can be planted that day. with a bit of experience you can judge the requirements and ensure that surplus stock is not kept on site overnight. care of planting stock on site once the nursery stock is on site, treat it carefully. there will inevitably be a delay before it is planted. plants treated carelessly can be badly damaged on site and this can make the entire bioengineering programme useless. keep bare-rooted plants and slips in damp Hessian. do not stack them in damp bundles in big heaps, as they will soon start to rot. assign one person to the task of repeatedly checking the plants and ensuring that they are in good condition. this person can move them as necessary and add water when they start be become dry. ensure that all labourers know that they must lift polypot seedlings by the pots, not be the plants. they should be moved in strong trays or a few at a time in the hands. always handle plants, slips and cuttings carefully. always keep them moist and in the shade, and never let them dry out. destroy plants, which dry out, as they are certain to die. these points of handling on site are important and you should make sure that the labourers are trained to follow them. bioengineering programming works the HMG/N financial system is clear and logical. every institution must have a system, which regulates its expenditure. however, often it seems to hinder technical operations. we must know how to work within the system if we are to carry out bioengineering works effectively. restrictions on bioengineering works imposed by the HMG/N Fiscal Year there are many difficulties for bioengineers and the main ones are those, which affect the annual programming of bioengineering works and the management of contracting. they are as follows:      - the Fiscal Year ends in the middle of our main working period (i.e. the rainy        season);      - unspent budgets are frozen;      - programmes have to be made well in advance and it may be difficult to alter        them later;      - any changes in either the programme or the site location require a lot of file        chasing in Kathmandu;      - at the end of the FY, there is much work to be done completing the accounts;         this distracts from technical work;      - funds for the new FY are often not released by the Ministry of Finance for        several months due to delays in approval of the work programmes by the        National Planning Commission;      - the quotation system for employing local contractors is restricted by HMGN        regulations; and      - civil engineering works are generally finished at the very last moment in the        Fiscal Year, not leaving any time for bioengineering works. ways of working within the HMGN system to reduce financial problems there are several ways of overcoming these problems.      1 if a budget has been proposed for bioengineering works in the Fiscal Year         just started, up to one sixth of the annual budget may be used per month for         the works. this needs to be requested by the Project Manager.      2 if you are using contractors for the site works, contract packages can be         arranged so that there is a defects and liabilities period of six or twelve         months after the end of the Fiscal Year. if the contractor does not complete         the works, then he will forfeit the retention money or performance bond.      3 in exceptional cases, you can apply to the Director General for use of money         from the Project's Deposit Account.      4 in dire circumstances, you can apply for emergency funds (or again, from         the Deposit Account). this would normally be for works resulting from a         landslide or erosion of a serious nature, which has occurred unexpectedly         during the monsoon, i.e. soon after the start of the new FY. summary annual calendar of bioengineering works month main activities comments/other works Shrawan Jul-Aug site plantation works: all grass slips and seedlings; all shrub and tree seedlings and hardwood cutting; all remaining direct seeding observation of newly planted sites and maintenance as required site plantation starts this month in the mid and far western regions Bhadra Aug-Sep observation of newly planted sites and maintenance as required budget release expected now; start detailed programming Aswin Sep-Oct observation of newly planted sites and maintenance as required conduct post-monsoon survey of roadside slopes, prioritise problem areas and begin planning for remedial works make initial assessment and order for jute netting (jute harvesting season) carry out coppicing and pollarding of large trees jute net weaving takes place all year round but timely ordering ensures the best quality fibres and lower prices Kartik Nov-Nov preparation for seed collection: final establishment of quantities required and planning of seed sources compost and mulch making Mangsir Nov-Dec seed collection, treatment and storage preparation for physical site works; planning, programming, contracting etc. compost and mulch making this is the main seed collection period for grasses and some shrubs and trees, but the seeds of some species ripen at other times Poush Dec-Jan seed collection, treatment and storage begin to prepare nurseries for operations in the spring preparation for physical site works; planning, programming, contracting, etc. existing nurseries should be in good order all year round but will still require beds to be cultivated, polypots to be filled, etc. Magh Jan-Feb preparation of nurseries for operations in the spring low altitude nurseries start seed sowing site works : slope trimming, start of construction of civil works, etc. seed collection, treatment and storage carry out pruning and thinning of large trees Phalgun Feb-Mar main period for starting nursery production sowing of seeds site works : slope trimming, civil works construction, etc. carry out pruning and thinning of large trees Chaitra Mar-Apr nursery operations in full swing site works: slope trimming, civil works construction, etc. Baishakh Apr-May nursery operations in full swing site works: slope trimming, civil works construction, etc. application of jute netting on site Jestha May-Jun nursery operations in full swing final physical site works final preparation of materials for site planting direct sowing of shrub and tree seeds on site direct sowing of grass seeds on gentle slopes or under mulch Ashadh Jun-Jul nursery operations continue site plantation works: all grass slips and seedlings; all shrub and tree seedlings and hardwood cuttings; all remaining direct seeding site plantation works start this month in most parts of the eastern, central and western regions bioengineering: general works annual programme no work activity fiscal year: 2056/57 Shra-wan Bha-dra As-win Kar-tik Mang-sir Pou-sh Ma-gh Phal-gun Chai-tra Bai-shakh Je-stha Asha-dh 1 complete 2051/52 site planting 2 seed collection: grass other species 3 seed treatment 4 seed storage 5 site assess-ment 6 planning vivil/site preparation works 7 tendering and arranging contracts 8 imple-menting civil-preparation works 9 planning bio-engineering needs 10 bio-eng stock production (in nursery) 11 final site preparation 12 placement of jute netting 13 bio-engineering site works; grass seed sowing on site shrub seed sowing on site brush layering grass planting tree/shrub planting 14 programming for FY 2053/54 routine activities 15 protection 16 monitoring 17 maintenance bioengineering: low altitude nursery annual programme no work activity fiscal year: 2052/53 Shra-wan Bha-dra As-win Kartik Mang-sir Pou-sh Magh Phal-gun Chai-tra Bai-shakh Je-stha Asha-dh 1 seed collection: grass other species 2 soil and sand collection 3 compost : making turning 4 purchase of polypots and other items 5 general pre-paration of nurseries 6 polypot filling 7 shade repairing 8 grass tock: plant out; respace; 9 seedlings: seed sowing; pricking out; re-spacing; root pruning; 10 prepare stock to leave nursery routine activities 11 placement of jute netting 12 weeding 13 protecting 14 general mainte-nance nursery activity calendar by fiscal year activity Shra-wan Bha-dra As-win Kar-tik Mang-sir Pou-sh Magh Phal-gun Chai-tra Bai-shakh Je-stha Asha-dh nursery construction complete by end of Mangsir soil and sand collection order new supplies making compost turning compost as required bed preparation prepare potting mixes filling polypots check material sources plant material collection transplanting re-spacing as required check seed sources seed collection *    *    *    * seed treatment *    *    *    * seed sowing pricking out as required root pruning as required spacing out as required weeding maintain water supply watering as required shading of young plants as required protection of the nursery record keeping general maintenance regular checks and repairs made pest and disease control daily checks and action taken when necessary uplifting and preparing as required transporting as required site planting works depends on rain depends on rain * main seed collection period only; other seeds are collected at other times of the year. this is an example only and a specific calendar must be made for every nursery.       bioengineering works programming exercise in this exercise you are required to prepare the bioengineering programmes for an imaginary division which is described for you in the notes below. you need to draw up the following programmes:      - bioengineering annual works programme, including physical preparation        works;      - nursery programme for each nursery;      - seed collection programme. you should consider the following questions:      - what resources will you need to obtain before the start of the Fiscal Year?      - are there any activities, which should have started earlier?      - what assumptions have you had to make?      - what nursery stock will be left over for next year?      - what site works will be remaining to be completed in the next FY? you can supply further information, but should not leave anything out. this is the minimum programme. you may need to add more species to some of the divisions' programmes. if you want to, you can break works down into separate packages on a hypothetical quantity split between sites. you should ensure that all the works dovetail into each other. do not worry about maintenance works. you will be considering these and how to programme them at a later date. remember that, at altitudes above 1500 m, you may need to sow your nursery stock plants nearly a year before they are required on site, in order to give them time to reach plane table size. check that you have covered all the details. for example, from where will you get jute netting? can you just buy it or should you place an order during the jute harvest? what should you do about seeds not available in your locality? will you be able to cope with the workload at all time of the year or should you shift things around? once you have programmed your work, you should prepare a ten-minute presentation to show your various programmes. prepare clear charts showing simplified versions of your programmes for works, nursery and seed collection. you may need to refer to publications such as Vegetation Structures for Stabilising Highway Slopes, Interim Rate Analysis Norms for Bioengineering Works and Supporting Information and Forest Seed and Nursery Practice in Nepal. the table below gives estimated quantities for each of the four divisions, whose programmes are to be planned by the groups. the programmes devised must take these needs into account in planning. division name group A group B group C group D Napalpur Horiyopokhari Ramronagar Chisogaon roads (Highway) 250 km 130 km 180 km 220 km roads (Feeder) 120 km 280 km 370 km 430 km bioengineering nurseries Nepalpur (750 m) Phedi (400 m) Noramrotar (900 m) Chisogaon (1900 m) Tatoghat (250 m) Danda (1500 m) Thulogaon (1700 m) Tolotau (1400 m) planned civil works gabion (m3) 500 350 150 280 masonry walls (m3) 120 100 - 220 check dams (m3) 50 80 100 60 masonry dentition (m3) 35 - 90 40 rip-rap (m2) 400 250 - 300 subsoil drains (m) - - 450 120 gabion wire bolsters (m) 200 550 - 300 jute netting (m2) - 350 900 - planned bio-eng works (Terai-1000 metres) grass seeding (m2) 450 5.500 350 - grass slips (m2) 7.000 15.000 600 - large bamboos (nos.) 340 - - - direct tree/shrub seeds (m2) 500 250 900 - tree/shrub seedling (nos.) 23.00 18.000 10.000 - brush layering (m) - 850 1.500 - fascines (m) - 500 800 - mulching of seed (m2) - 5.500 350 - (1000-1500 metres) grass seeding (m2) 1.000 500 - - grass slips (m2) 2.000 1.500 - 500 large bamboos (nos.) - - 300 25 direct tree/shrub seeds (m2) 1.000 - - 400 tree/shrub seedlings (nos.) 28.000 1.000 - 3.000 brush layering (m) 500 200 - 400 fascines (m) 200 400 - 400 mulching of seed (m2) 500 - - - (1500-2000 metres) grass seeding (m2) - - 3.500 4.000 grass slips (m2) - 4.000 3.500 4.000 large bamboos (nos.) - - 100 50 direct tree/shrub seeds (m2) - - 200 500 tree/shrub seedlings (nos.) - 500 6.000 25.000 brush layering (m) - 650 800 650 fascines (m) - - 400 300 mulching of seed (m2) - - 1.500 400 (2000-2500 metres) grass seeding (m2) - 500 - - grass slips (m2) - 500 1.500 5.000 large bamboos (nos.) - - - 150 direct tree/shrub seeds (m2) - - - - tree/shrub seedlings (nos.) - 1.000 2.500 3.000 brush layering (m) - - - - fascines (m) - - - - mulching of seed (m2) - - - - division name group A group B group C group D Napalpur Horiyopokhari Ramronagar Chisogaon planned species (seed) Babiyo Dhonde Kans Sito Areri Bhujetro Dhanyero Kettuke Keraukose Tilka Khanyu Khayer Bakeno Sisau Amliso Babiyo Dhonde Kans Khar Narkat Phurke Sito Areri Dhusun Kettuke Keraukose Tilka Khayer Khote salla Sisau Amliso Dhonde Kans Padang bans Tite nigalo areri Bhujetro Dhanyero Kettuke Keraukose Gobre salla Khote salla Sisau Utis Khar Narkat Padang bans Phurke Sito Tite nigalo Areri Bhujetro Tilka Bakeno Chilaune Gobre salla Khanyu Utis planned bamboo species Dhanu bans Mal bans Dhanu bans Kalo bans Choya/tama bans Nibha bans planned species (cuttings) Asuro Saruwa Simali Assuro Bainsh Saruwa Kanda phul Namdi phul Simali Bainsh Kanda phul Namdi phul